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PAVEMENTS  AND  ROADS. 


PAVEMENTS  AND  ROADS 


THEIR 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE 


REPRINTED   FROM 


The  Rngineering  and  Building  Record. 


(Prior  to  1887,  The  Sanitary  Engineer.) 


COMPILED  BY  E.  G.  LOVE,  PH.D. 


1890. 

THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD. 
NEW  YORK. 


Copyright,  1890, 
BY  THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD. 


THE  ENGINEERING  &  BUILDING  RECORD  PRESS, 
277  Pearl  Street,  N.  Y. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  book  is  a  compilation  of  articles  which  have  appeared  in 
recent  volumes  of  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record,  edited 
with  a  view  of  eliminating  whatever  was  of  timely  or  local  interest, 
and  arranged  by  divisions  for  convenience  of  use. 

The  science  of  paving  and  the  need  of  proper  maintenance  of 
pavements  is  yet  comparatively  little  understood  in  this  country, 
and  the  same  is  true  in  even  greater  degree  with  regard  to  roads. 
The  editor  of  the  journal  named  was  led  to  give  the  matter  special 
attention  by  seeing  what  was  done  in  Europe,  during  his  visits 
there,  and  finally  began  an  investigation  of  work  on  streets  and 
roads  in  England,  France  and  other  countries,  the  result  of  which 
was  the  gathering  of  a  large  and  very  valuable  mass  of  information 
in  regard  to  the  subject.  Of  this  everything  likely  to  be  of  practical 
use  in  America  was  printed  in  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record, 
and  is  given  here  in  more  convenient  shape.  With  it  appears  a 
large  quantity  of  matter  from  American  sources,  including  the  prize 
essays  on  Road  Construction  and  Maintenance  submitted  in  the 
competition  instituted  by  the  journal  named  in  December,  1889. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  great  bulk  of  the  book  is  made  up 
of  records  of  experience  and  statements  of  cost  in  different  places. 
The  comments  are  based  on  this  experience. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART  I. 


CHAPTER  I.— STONE  PAVEMENTS 9 

Construction  of,  in  Liverpool — Paving  Inspection — Specifica- 
tions in  New  York  —  Violation  of  Specifications — Paving 
Material. 

CHAPTER  II.— WOOD  PAVEMENTS 21 

Construction  of,  in  London — Cost  and  Durability — Specifica- 
tions for  Materials — Wood  Pavements  in  Paris  and  other  Cities 
— Sanitary  Aspects — Necessity  of  Maintenance. 

CHAPTER  III.— ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS 115 

Nature  and  Uses  of  Asphalt — Pavements  in  the  United  States, 
Paris  and  Berlin — Cost  and  Maintenance  of  in  London  and 
Liverpool — Renewals — Injury  by  Gas — Slipperiness. — Affect- 
ing the  Value  of  Property. 

CHAPTER  IV.— BRICK  PAVEMENTS 166 

Clays,  and  the  Manufacture  of  Paving  Brick  —  Crushing 
Strength — Use  in  American  Cities — Construction  and  Dura- 
bility— Specifications — Miscellaneous  Road  Metaling  Material. 

CHAPTER  V.— CURBS,  SIDEWALKS  AND  TRAMWAYS 187 

Artificial  Stone  for  Curbs — Footpaths  in  England — Asphalt 
and  Concrete  for  Footpaths — Liverpool  Tramways. 

CHAPTER  VI.— STREET  OPENING— MAINTENANCE 211 

Liverpool  Excavation  Contract — Opening  and  Reinstating 
Pavements — Requirements  in  New  York — Maintenance  of 
Pavements  in  London — Cleaning  London  Pavements. 

CHAPTER  VII.— NOTES 232 

Experience  with  Various  Pavements  in  London — Traffic  in 
Paris  and  in  American  Cities — Iron  Wheelways — Effect  on 
Health  of  Noisy  Pavements — Tests  of  Durability — Contracts 
Guaranteed. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

PART   II. 


ROADS  :   CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE 251 

Repair  and  Maintenance — Common  Roads  in  France — Road 
Making — Improving  Country  Roads — Specifications — Legisla- 
tion— Macadam  Roads — Herschell's  Treatise  on  Road  Making 
— Methods  of  Superintending  Construction  and  Repair. 


PART  III. 

PRIZE  ESSAYS  ON  ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTE- 
NANCE, submitted  in  the  Competition  instituted  by  The 
Engineering  and  Building  Record— Report  of  Committee 
of  Award 349 

Abstracts  of  Essays  receiving  Honorable  Mention 393 

A  Plea  for  ^Esthetic  Considerations  in  Road  Making 406 

Comments  on  the  Prize  Essays  by  the  Committee  of  Award.  . .       407 


INDEX. 


Allan,   G.,   on  Asphalt  and  Wood 

Pavements,  58. 
Ashes    and    Cinders    for  Unpaved 

Streets,  186. 
Asphaltic    Wood     Pavement     Co., 

System  of,  35,  42,  47. 
Asphalt,  its  Nature,  Occurrence  and 

Uses,  115,  193. 
Asphalt  Mastic,  194. 
Asphalt  Pavement,  115. 

Affecting  Value  of  Property,  163. 

At  Cost  of  Property  Owners,  164. 

Berlin,  153. 

Block  Pavement,  119,  165,  234. 

Boston,  156. 

Buffalo,  120,  136. 

Cedar  Blocks  vs.  Asphalt,  no. 

Cincinnati,  20. 

Cleanliness  of,    119.     (See  also 

under  other  Pavements.) 
Construction,   Cost  of,  68,  118, 

135,  154,  243. 

Defects  of  Asphalt  and  Vulcan- 
ite Pavements,  121. 
Durability  of,  157,  244,  246,  270. 
Formulae  for  Asphalt  and  Vul- 
canite Pavements,  120. , 
Foundation  for,    119,    136,  142, 

144. 

Granite  vs.  Asphalt,  20. 
Grades  on,  163. 
Injured  by  Gas,  160. 
Liverpool,  154. 
London,  22,  155,  232. 
Maintenance  of,    153,   156,  228, 

233- 
Maintenance,  Cost  of,  68,    118, 

119,  134,    154.    155,    157,    237, 

273- 
New  York,    134,    142,   153,  163, 

164. 

Paris,  68,  124,  330. 
Rock  Asphalt,  117. 
Slipperiness  of,    119,    161,    233, 

235,  236. 
Specifications  for,  124,  136,  141, 

142. 

Standard  for,  121,  122. 
Stone  Pavement  vs.,  122. 
Superior  to  Wood,  58. 
Traction  on,  119. 
Washington,  118,  120,  228. 
Wood  and,  54,  235. 
Asphalt  Rock,  Analyses  of,  194, 195. 


Baden,  Public  Roads  in,  339,  364. 
Barber's  Specifications  for  Asphalt 

Pavement,  136. 
Barnett's  Iron   Asphalt  Pavement, 

236. 

Beekman,  on  Destruction  of  Pave- 
ments, 216. 

Bicknell,  A.  C.,  on  Machine  for 
Planing  down  Wood  Pavement, 
114. 

Boulder  Pavements  Prohibited,  13. 
Boulnois,  H.  P.,  on  Footpaths    in 

England,  189,  205. 
Boulton,  S.  B.,  on  Creosoting,  56. 
Brick  Pavement,  166. 

Advantages  of,  174,  178. 
Allegheny  City,  Pa.,  173,  179. 
Bitumenized  or  Creosoted  Brick 

for,  173,  175. 
Bloomington,  111.,  173. 
Canton,  O.,  181. 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  182. 
Charleston,  W.  Va.,  182. 
Chicago,  111.,  174. 
Cincinnati,  O.,  174,  177. 
Clay,  Analyses  of,  168. 
Clay  for  Paving  Brick,  166,  167, 

168. 

Cleveland,  O.,  181. 
Columbus,  O.,  181. 
Construction  of,  176,  177,  178, 

179,  180,  181,  362. 
Construction,  Cost  of,  173,  176, 

178,  182. 

Cost  of  Paving  Brick,  168,  170, 

176,  178. 
Crushing   Strength    of    Paving 

Brick,  171,  177,  179. 
Des  Moines,  Iowa,  362. 
Decatur,  111.,  178. 
Durability  of,  172,  175,  176,  178, 

179,  182,  244. 

Fire  Brick  for,  175,  177,  179. 
Fremont,  O.,  182. 
Jacksonville,  111.,  174. 
London,  236. 
Manufacture  of  Paving  Brick, 

169. 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  173,  174. 
Peoria,  111.,  174. 
Priority  of  Use,  182. 
St.  Louis,  172. 
Size    and    Weight    of     Paving 

Brick,  167,  168,  170,  179. 


INDEX. 


Brick  Pavement — Continued. 

Specifications  for,  180. 

Tests  of  Paving  Brick,  179. 

Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  175. 

Youngstown,  O.,  173,  180. 
Bridgeport  Macadam  Roads,  290. 
Byrne,  A.    T.,   on  Road  Construc- 
tion, 402. 

Carey's  System  of  Wood  Pavement, 

37,  47- 

Cement  Pavement,  Proportions  for, 
185. 

Cement,  Portland,  Testing  of,  83, 
209. 

Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  York, 
on  Repaving  Requirements,  218. 

Channel  Stones,  10. 

Chicago  Board  of  Public  Works,  335. 

Chipman,  M.  S.,  on  Pavements  in 
American  Cities,  244. 

Clagett,  W.  S.,  Measuring  Mac- 
adam, 298. 

Clarke,  Ellice,  on  Asphalt  Foot- 
paths, 205. 

Clay,  Analyses  of,  168. 

Coal  Tar  Pavement,  162. 

Coggeshall,  R.  C.  P.,  Pavement 
Protector  for  Hydrant  Flushing, 
300. 

Coleman,  H.,  on  Brick  Pavement, 
182. 

Colling  wood,  F.,  on  Road-making, 
280,  281. 

Composite  Pavement  in  Paris,  185. 

Concrete,  Expansion  and  Contrac- 
tion of,  197. 

Construction  and  Repair  of  Public 
Roads,  334. 

Contracts,  should  they  be  Guaran- 
teed ?  247. 

Cooper,  S.  L.,  on  Road  Construc- 
tion, 399. 

Cowper,  E.    A.,  on  Creosoting,  58. 

Crossings,  u.' 

Culverwell,  G.  P.,  on  Wood  Pave- 
ment, 63. 

Curb,  A  Novel  Form  of,  187. 

Curbs,  An  Artificial  Stone  for,  188. 

Curb-stones,  10,  138. 

Davison's  Iron  and  Asphalt  Pave- 
ment, 237. 

Delano,   W.    H.,    on    Wood  Pave- 
ment, 66. 
Dunham,  F.  A.,  on  Macadam  Roads 

in  Union  Co.,  N.  J.,  297. 
Dunscombe,    C.,     Cost  of    Asphalt 

Pavement  in  Liverpool,  154. 
Liverpool     Street     Excavation 

Contract,  211,  215. 
Maintaining   Macadam    Roads, 

228. 

Stone  Pavement  in  Liverpool,  9. 
Wood  Pavement,  74. 


Durability.      (See    under    different 

Pavements.) 
Durability   of   Pavements   Guaran- 

teed, 247. 
Durability,  Tests  of,  243. 

England,  Footpaths  in,  189. 

Faija,  H.,  on  Wood  Pavement,  69. 
Footpaths.     (See  Sidewalks.) 
Fowler,  -     on   Concrete    Foot- 

paths, 205. 
France,  Administration  of  Common 

Roads  in,  259. 

Gas,  Asphalt  Pavement  Injured  by, 

160. 

Giles,  A.,  on  Creosoting,  55. 
Gilroy,   T.    F.,   Asphalt   Pavement 

Contracts,  134. 
Stone  Pavement   Specifications, 

17- 
Granite  Blocks  vs.   Asphalt  in  Cin- 

cinnati, 20. 
Granite,  Sandstone  and   Limestone 

for  Paving,  20. 
Gravel  Pavement,  177,  284. 
Greene,  F.  V.,  on  Street  Traffic  and 

Street  Pavement,  238. 
On   The   Nature   and    Uses  of 

Asphalt,  115. 

On    Roads   and   Road-making, 
261. 

Hale,   J.    P.,   on  Brick  Pavements, 

182. 
Haywood,  W.  ,  on  Cleaning  London 

Pavements,  229. 
On  Cost  of  Maintaining  Asphalt 

Pavements  in  London,  155. 
On  London  Pavements,  232. 
Hazen,  J.  V.,  on  Road  Construction, 

393- 
Health,  Effect  on,   of   Noisy  Pave- 

ment, 241. 
Henson's  Patent  Wood   Pavement, 

34,  42,  47. 
Herschel,  C.,  on  Science   of  Road- 

making,  301. 

Hill,  D.  B.,  on  Country  Roads,  279. 
Holloway,    J.    F.,   on    Brick   Pave- 

ments, 179. 
Hugenin,   T.    A.,   on   Brick    Pave- 

ment, 182. 

India,  Macadam  Roads  in,  287. 
Inspection,   Inadequate  Method  of, 

in  New  York,  16. 
International  Pavements,  238. 
Iron  Pavements,  330. 
Isaacs,  L.  H.,  on  Wood  Pavement, 


Jenks,  J.  W.,  on  Road  Legislation, 

285. 


INDEX. 


Laurent,  A.,  on  Wood  Pavement  in 

Paris,  91. 
Lawford,  W.,  on  Wood  Pavement, 

49- 

Lemon,  -  on  Footpaths,  205. 
Ligno-mineral  Pavement,  37. 
Liverpool  Streets,  Sanitary  Condi- 

tion of,  14. 

Street  Excavation  Contract,  211. 
Tramways,  205. 
Livingston,  G.,  on  Maintenance  of 

London  Pavements,  220. 
Specifications  for  Wood   Pave- 

ment, 84. 
Lloyd's  "  Keyed  "  System  for  Wood 

Pavement,  29,  36,  42,  47. 
London,    Experience  with   Asphalt 
and  other  Pavements  in,  232. 
Length  of  Paved  Streets  in,  22. 
Maintenance  of  Pavements  in, 

220. 
Metropolitan   Board  of    Works 

of,  334- 
Lovegrove,  J.,  on  Pavements,  55. 

MacNeil,  J.,  Traction,  Experiments 

on,  366. 
Maintenance,  211,  216,  218,  220,  225, 

247.       (See  also    under  different 

Pavements.) 
Mallet,  C.,  Process  for  Preserving 

Wood,  no. 
Matheson,  E.,  on  Wood  and  Asphalt 

Pavement,  54. 
McClintock,    W.  E.,   on    Macadam 

Roads  in  Chelsea,  290. 
McDonnell's    Patent    Adamantean 

Pavement,  233,  234. 
Mclntosh,  H.,  on  Wood  and  Asphalt 

Pavement,  55. 
Mead,  D.  W.,  on  Specifications  for 

Gravel  Roadway,  284. 
Meigs,  M.  C.,  on  Cost  of  Coal-tar 

Pavement,  163. 
Morin's   Experiments  on  Traction, 


National  Vulcanite  Company's  Spe- 

cifications, 141. 

Neville,  P.,  on  Wood  Pavement,  75. 
Newberry,  J.  S.  ,  on  the  Care  of  Pave. 

ments,  228. 

Noise  Produced  by  Pavement,  272. 
North,  E.  P.  Bridgeport  Macadam 

Roads,  290,  296. 
On  Rice's    Report  on  Asphalt 

Pavement,  122. 
Notes,  232. 

Omaha,  Pavements  in,  245. 
Opening    and     Reinstating     Pave- 

ments,   14,   64,    79,  211,  215,  216, 

217,  218,  227. 
Owen,    Jas.,    on    Thin    Macadam 

Roads,  294. 


Paris,  Traffic  in,  238. 

Park  Commissioners  of  New  York  on 
Street  Opening,  220. 

Parshall,  S.  W.,  on  Brick  Pavement, 
181. 

Pavements  in  American  Cities,  244. 

Paving,  Profits  in,  109. 

Phillips,  A.  L.,  on  Road  Making  and 
Maintenance,  405. 

Pope,  I.  F.,  on  Good  Roads,  285. 
On  Road  Construction,  374. 

Post,  New  York,  on  Asphalt  Pave- 
ment Contracts,  134. 

Preston,  W.  G.,  on  Brick  Pavement, 
183. 

Pritchard,  J.  P.,  on  Construction  of 
Roads,  389. 

Rails,  Testing  of,  209. 
Railways,  Street.     (See  Tramways.) 
Rankin's  Wood  Pavement,  49. 
Rawlinson,  R.,  on  Wood  Pavement, 

109. 

Refuse,  Disposal  of,  14. 
Rice,  W.  P. ,  on  Asphalt  Pavement, 

120. 
On    Testing  of    Paving   Brick, 

179. 
Rich,  WT.   E.,  on  Wood  Pavement, 

54; 

Riding  Paths,  312. 
Roads,  251. 

Ad  vantages  of  Good  Roads,  366, 

393,  403- 
Esthetic       Considerations      in 

Road  Building,  406. 
Chelsea,  Mass.,  Macadam  and 

Gravel  Roads  in,  290. 
Classification  of,  283, 
Clay  Roads,  277,  403. 
Committee  of  Award  for  Essays 

on  Road  Making,  Report  of, 

348. 
Committee  of  Award  for  Essays 

on  Road  Making,  Comments 

by,  407- 
Construction,  254,  263,  278,  281, 

292,  297,  379,  389,  396. 
Construction,  Cost  of,  265,  277, 

289,  291,  297,  387,  393,  399. 
Cross  Section,  265,  357,  376. 
Culverts  and  Drains,  309,   378, 

395- 
Drainage,  288,  353,  355,378,  395, 

401. 
Essays    on     Construction    and 

Maintenance  of,  347. 
Foundation,  253,  314,  357,  376, 

389,  400. 

France,  Common  Roads  in,  259. 
Grades,  253,  302,  314,  350,  375, 

399,  407- 

Gravel  Roads,  322,  356,  390. 
Gravel  Roadway,  Specifications 

for,  284. 


INDEX. 


Roads — Continued. 

Laying  Out  a  Road,  279,  287,  301, 

349,  368,  374. 
Legislation,  285. 
London,    Extent   of    Macadam 

Roads  in,  22. 
Macadam  Roads,  262,  278,  287, 

358,  39i- 

Macadam  Roads  in  American 
Cities,  299. 

Macadam  Roads  in  Union  Co., 
N.  J.,  297. 

Macadam's  System  of  Construc- 
tion, 254,  262,  313,  379. 

Maintenance,  228,  255,  266,  280, 

323,  363,  384,  39L  397,  4oi,  409- 

Maintenance,  Cost  of,  48,  52,  55, 

68,  90,   117,  258,  273,  289,  325, 

364,  397- 
Material,  257,  288,  290,  315,  322, 

380,  383,  404. 
Measuring  Macadam  when  laid, 

298. 

Objections  to  Macadam,  91. 
Plant    for    Road    Construction, 

392. 
Protector  for  Hydrant  Flushing, 

300. 

Roman  Roads,  261. 
Sandy  Roads,  278,  403. 
Shrinkage,  309,  355. 
Supervision,  252,  277,  365,  386. 
Telf  ord's  System  of  Construction 

254,  262,  358,  379,  400,  409. 
Thin  Macadam  Roads,  290,  294, 

296. 

Toll  Roads,  276. 
Traction,  253,  304,  364,  366,  371, 

407. 

Transport  of  Earth,  306,  354. 
Tresaguet   as  a  Road  Builder, 

262,  324,  364. 
Wheels,  Effect  of  Narrow,  252, 

279,  283,  405. 

Width  of,  352,  374,  399,  402,  408. 

Roads  in  Massachusetts,  an  Act  for 

the  more  Perfect  Construction  and 

Maintenance  of,  343. 

Rollers,  225,  263,  289,  317,  358,  365, 

368,  408. 
Rosewater,  Andrew,  Pavements  in 

Omaha,  245. 
Rubber  Pavement,  186. 

Sanborn,  F.  B.,  on  Road  Construc- 
tion, 401. 

Sanitary    Conditition   of    Liverpool 
Streets,  14. 

Sanitary  Condition  of  Wood  Pave- 
ment, 68. 

Shaler,  N.  S.,  on  Common  Roads, 
276. 

Sidewalks,  189. 

Asphalt,  Advantages  of,  200. 
Asphalt  Sidewalks,  Cost  of,  200. 


Sidewalks — Continued. 

Asphalt  and  Concrete  Foot  Pave- 
ments, 192. 

Comparison  of  Different  Foot 
Pavements,  203. 

Concrete,  Expansion  and  Con- 
traction of,  197. 

Construction,  u,  194,  196,  201, 

311- 

Cracks,  198,  205. 
Durability,  196,  199. 
Material  for,  Asphalt,  190,  194, 

198,  227. 

Material  for,  Brick,  191. 
Material  for,  Concrete,  190,  197, 

201. 

Material  for,  Stone,  189,  227,  237. 
Slag,    Pavements  from   Blast   Fur- 
nace, 184. 

Slipperiness  of  Pavements,  55,  119, 
161,    238,    272.      (See  also  under 
different  Pavements.) 
Snow,  Removal  of,  236,  237. 
Southam,  A.,  on  Wood,  Pavements, 

70. 

Specifications    for    Asphalt    Pave- 
ment, 124,  136,  141,  142. 
Brick  Pavement,  180. 
Filbert     Vulcanite     Pavement, 

141. 

Gravel  Roadway,  284. 
Stone  Pavement,  17,  369. 
Street  Excavation  Contract,  211. 
Wood  Pavement,  79,  81,  83,  84, 

94,  102. 

Stayton,   G.    H.,    on    Wood    Pave- 
ment, 21,  59,  73. 
Steel  Paving  Blocks,  184. 
Stone  Pavement,  9. 
Asphalt  vs.,  122. 
Blocks,  size  of,  10,  n,  328,  360, 

370. 

Cincinnati,  20. 
Construction,   Cost  of,  13,  232, 

243. 

Durability,  13,  244,  270. 
For  heavy  Traffic,  76. 
Foundation,  9,  n,  246,  360,  369. 
Granite,  Sandstone  and   Lime- 
stone for,  20,  245, 
Granite  vs.  Asphalt,  20. 
Inspection  of,  in  New  York,  16, 

17- 

Liverpool,  9,  18. 
London,  22,  232. 
Maintenance,  Cost  of,  13,  117, 

237.  273. 

New  York,  16,  17,  19. 
Omaha,  245. 
Sanitary  Conditions,  14. 
Specifications  for,  17,  369. 
Specifications,  Violation  of,   in 

New  York,  19. 

Stone,   R.,  on   Iron   Wheelways  in 
New  York,  240. 


INDEX. 


Strachan,  G.  R.,  Asphalt  and  Con- 
crete Foot  Pavements,  192. 
Maintenance  of  London  Pave- 
ments, 225. 

Specifications  for  Wood  Pave- 
ment, 79. 
Street  Closing,  14,  40,  90,  221,  224, 

227,  229,  233,  237. 
Sweet,  W.  A.,  on  Road  Saving,  283. 

Tar  Pavements,  118. 

Thompson,  S.  C.,  on  Road  Con- 
struction and  Maintenance,  349. 

Tile  Pavement,  Earthen,  183. 

Times,  The  New  York,  on  Opening 
Pavements,  14. 

Topeka,  Kan.,  Report  to  Common 
Council  of,  20,  113,  162,  165,  179, 
243,  299. 

Toronto,  Macadam  Roads  in,  299. 

Torrey,  D.,  on  Asphalt  Pavements, 
157- 

Trackways.     (See  Wheelways.) 

Traction,  49,  54,  119,  271,  330,  371. 

Traffic  in  Liverpool,  12. 
London,  22,  29,  42. 
Paris,  238. 

Observations  on,  238. 
Standard,  66. 

Tramways,  205,  206,  207,  209,  274. 

Tresaguet  as  a  Road  Builder,  262. 

Tribune,  The  New  York,  on  As- 
phalt Pavements,  153. 

Vawser,  R.,  on  Concrete  Footpaths, 

205. 
Ventris,   A.,   on    Specifications   for 

Wood  Pavement,  102. 
Vivian,  W.   A.,  on  Slipperiness  of 

Asphalt  Pavement,  161. 
Voorhies,  W.,  on  Brick  Pavement, 

178. 
Vulcanite  Pavement.     (See  Asphalt 

Pavement.) 

Waddington,  on  Common  Roads  in 

France,  259. 

Warren,  H.  L.,  Esthetic  Consider- 
ations in  Road  Building,  406. 
Weaver,  W.,  on  Wood  Pavement,  49. 
Wheeler,   W.    H.,   on    Repair    and 

Maintenance  of  Roads,  251. 
Wheelways,  240,  330. 
Whinery,  S. ,  on  Brick  Pavements  in 

Nashville,  174. 
White,  G.  F.,  on  Wood  Pavements, 

70. 

Wightman,  G.  F.,  on  Brick  Pave- 
ments, 176. 
Wood  Pavement,  21. 
Advantages  of,  361. 
Antiseptic  Liquid  for  Blocks,  no 
Asphaltic  Wood  Pavement,  35, 

42,  47,  75- 
Asphalt  Superior  to,  58. 


Wood  Pavement — Continued. 

Bethell's  Creosoting  Process,  28. 
Blocks,  Kind  of  Wood,  27,  63, 

70,  73,  78,  79,  84,  92,  96,  103. 
Blocks,  Size  of,  29,  43,  78,  79, 

84,  92,  96,  103. 
Boston  Commission  on,  329. 
Burnettizing  Wood,  329. 
Carey's  System  of,  37,  47. 
Cedar  Blocks  vs.  Asphalt,  no. 
Cleanliness  of,  75,  271. 
Compressed  Wood  for,  no. 
Compression  of,  65. 
Construction  of,  29,  92,  99,  103, 

112,  362. 
Construction,  Cost  of,  23,  31,  33, 

39,  45,  47,  50,   53,  67,  70,  78, 

232,  243- 
Creosoting,  28,  32,  42,  47,  55,  56, 

58,64,79,  85,  in,  329. 
Duluth,  Minn.,  112. 
Durability  of,  29,  31,  33,  41,  74, 

75,  79,  108,  in,  113,  226,  236, 
270. 

Expansion  of  the  Blocks,  30,  65. 
Foundation,  23,  24,  65,   69,  71, 

76,  77,  85,  9i,  95.  102,  112,  362. 
Grades,  44- 

Gravel  on,  74. 

Henson's  Patent  Wood  Pave- 
ment, 34,  42,  47. 

Inspection  of  Blocks,  80. 

Joints,  31,  65,  71,  93. 

Leavenworth,  Kan.,  113. 

Levels  and  Contour,  24,  63. 

Ligno-mineral  Pavement,  37. 

Liverpool,  74. 

Lloyd's  Patent  "Keyed"  Pave- 
ment, 29,  36,  42,  47. 

London,  21,  22,  77,  79,  84,  102, 
108,  362. 

Maintenance  of,  33,  40,  98,  109. 

Maintenance,  Cost  of ,  44,  52,61, 
67,  70,  75,  77,  90,  117,  237, 
243,  273- 

Maintenance,  Necessity  of,  107, 
109. 

Mallet's  Process  for  Preserving 
Wood,  no. 

New  York,  107,  108. 

Objections  to,  361. 

Paris,  67,  90. 

Plain  Block  Pavement,  31,  37, 
42,  47. 

Planing  down  a  Wood  Pave- 
ment, 114. 

Rankin's  Wood  Pavement,  49. 

St.  Paul,  Minn.,  in. 

Sanitary  Aspects  of,  68,  73,  105. 

Specifications  for,  79,  84,  94,  102. 

Top  Dressing,  30,  64,  74. 

Traffic  on,  42. 

Tramway  Streets,  Obiections  to 
Wood  Pavement  in,  74. 

Washington,  117. 


NOTE. 

The  foot  notes  refer  to  the  volume  and  page  of 
THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD. 


CHAPTER 


STONE  PAVEMENTS. 

STONE    PAVEMENTS    IN    LIVERPOOL.* 

THE  introduction  of  impervious  pavement  in  Liverpool  began  in 
1872,  the  Health  Committee  in  that  year  approving  of  the  recom- 
mendation of  their  engineer  (G.  F.  Deacon,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.) 
relative  to  the  laying  in  the  city  generally  of  this  class  of  pavement. 
From  that  date  the  work  has  been  prosecuted  without  intermission. 
Up  to  the  end  of  1879  there  were  laid  371,500  yards,  and  since  then 
up  to  1886,  1,000,000  yards  have  been  laid.  We  have  in  another 
article  described  the  method  of  laying  tramways  through  paved 
streets.  From  the  nearly  fifty  miles  of  these  now  laid,  the  city 
derives  a  rental  of  $150,000  per  annum,  and  the  annual  cost  of  main- 
tenance is  found  to  be  but  about  $7,500,  leaving  a  handsome  bal- 
ance toward  a  sinking  fund  for  repayment  of  cost. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  ClementDunscombe,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 
present  City  Engineer,  we  have  obtained  the  following  information 
respecting  the  pavements  now  being  laid  down  : 

The  streets  of  Liverpool  are  divided  into  first,  second,  and 
third  class. 

Paving ' '  First-  Class  '  Streets.  Foundation. — First-class  streets,  or 
main  lines  of  communication,  are  paved  as  follows  :  First,  a  Portland 
cement  concrete  foundation  is  laid  six  inches  deep.  The  concrete 
consists  of  one  part  by  measure  of  cement,  five  to  six  parts  gravel, 
and  seven  to  eight  of  broken  stone  ;  the  gravel  and  cement  being 
thoroughly  mixed  dry,  and  only  enough  water  then  allowed  to  flow 
on  it  to  make  the  material  damp  enough  after  it  is  incorporated  to 
retain  its  form  when  a  portion  is  taken  in  the  hand  and  pressed. 

The  ground  having  been  excavated,  thoroughly  consolidated, 
and  properly  graded  to  the  requisite  depth  and  shape,  a  layer  of 
broken  stone  (or  other  material)  is  spread  evenly  over  the  surface 
and  thoroughly  wet  from  the  rose  of  a  watering-can.  A  stratum  of 
mortar,  mixed  as  described  above,  is  spread  over  this  and  a  second 
layer  of  stone  added.  The  stone  is  then  "  beaten  in  with  a  heavy 
flat  beater."  Other  layers  of  mortar  and  stone  are  added  and  thor- 
oughly beaten  in,  until  the  required  thickness  is  obtained,  the  final 
layer  of  cement  mortar  being  smoothed  off  to  an  even  and  uniform 
surface. 

*xiv.  589. 


IO  STONE    PAVEMENTS. 

Material. — It  is  required  that  the  broken  stone  shall  all  be  capa- 
ble of  passing  in  any  direction  through  a  2^-inch  ring  and  be  clean 
and  free  from  foreign  matter.  The  so-called  "  gravel "  must  be 
"  free  from  all  stones  that  will  not  pass  through  an  inch  sieve,"  and 
clean  and  free  from  foreign  matter.  No  inferior  limit  is  given.  The 
term  gravel,  as  used  in  the  specifications,  is  not,  as  we  would  under- 
stand it,  gravel  containing  no  sand,  but  gravel  and  sand  as  they 
would  come  from  the  pit.  Its  fineness  would  depend  upon  the  size 
of  mesh  through  which  it  had  been  riddled,  so  that  "fine  gravel" 
would  mean  that  which  had  passed  through  a  half-inch  mesh  or  less. 

"  In  Liverpool  we  are  very  particular  as  regards  the  quality  of 
the  materials  forming  concrete — viz. :  broken  stone,  gravel  and  sand, 
all  of  which  are  perfectly  clean,  free  from  all  foreign  matter,  and  the 
best  of  their  respective  kinds  that  can  be  obtained.  We  have  ex- 
ceptional facilities  for  getting  a  supply  of  these  materials  from  the 
River  Dee,  the  Wyre,  and  the  Isle  of  Man  mines,  which  supply  a 
gravel,  granitic  or  otherwise,  and  sand  of  a  superior  quality,  and  in 
addition  much  good  material  is  brought  as  ship's  ballast." 

The  cement  must  not  leave  more  than  ten  per  cent,  residuum  on 
a  No.  50  wire  sieve,  and  pure  cement  setting  in  water  must  after 
seven  days  give  a  tensile  strength  of  400  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  concrete  must  set  ten  days  before  paving  is  begun  upon  it. 

The  Blocks. — On  the  foundation  thus  prepared  is  spread  a  layer 
of  "  fine  gravel  "  not  exceeding  a  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  on  which 
the  granite  or  syenite  sets  are  laid  in  "  regular,  straight,  and  properly 
bonded  courses,  with  close  joints.  The  sets  are  3j"x3£"  blocks  6^" 
deep  on  a  6-inch  cement  concrete  foundation.  In  streets  with  heavy 
traffic  the  depth  of  the  blocks  is  7^  inches.  The  joints  of  the  sets 
are  then  filled  with  hard,  clean,  dry  shingle  ;  the  sets  then  thor- 
oughly rammed  and  additional  shingle  added  until  the  joints  are 
full.  The  joints  are  then  carefully  filled  with  a  hot  mixture  com- 
posed of  coal-pitch  and  creosote  oil,  and  the  whole  pavement  cov- 
ered with  "half  an  inch  of  sharp  gravel." 

The  channel- stones  (or  gutter-stones,  as  we  call  them)  are  of 
granite  or  syenite,  and  are  3  inches  thick,  16  inches  wide,  and  not 
less  than  3  feet  long,  with  parallel  beds  and  faces,  and  square  sides 
and  ends.  They  are  laid  in  cement  concrete,  and  have  joints  filled 
as  before  described. 

The  curb-stones  are  6  inches  thick  at  top,  7  inches  thick  at  5 
inches  below  the  top,  and  not  less  than  that  below,  nor  less  than  3 
feet  long  or  12  inches  deep,  whether  straight  or  curved.  To  be 
smoothly  dressed  on  top,  8  inches  down  the  face  and  3  inches  down 
the  back  ;  the  remainder  of  the  stone  to  be  hammer  dressed,  and  the 
joints  square  for  the  entire  depth. 


STONE    PAVEMENTS.  II 

The  footways  are  laid  with  3-inch  flags  of  best  quality  ;  no  flags 
to  be  less  than  2  feet  wide  or  3  feet  long.  Joints  to  be  squared  for 
the  whole  thickness.  Stones  laid  on  a  bed  of  "  fine  gravel,"  and 
joints  flushed  with  cement  mortar. 

In  all  streets  the  height  of  crown  above  the  channel  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  width  of  the  street,  the  rate  of  inclination  in  the  cross- 
section  being  i  to  36.  The  channel-stone  is  laid  level  (in  a  direc- 
tion crossing  the  street),  and  between  it  and  the  centre  the  section 
curves,  so  that,  calling  the  centre  height  i,  the  heights  at  one-fourth, 
one-half,  and  three-fourths  the  distance  to  it  will  be  respectively  0.35, 
0.65,  and  0.87  (see  cross-sections), 

Crossings  consist  of  three  rows  of  i6x8-inch  granite  crossing- 
stones,  with  sides  and  joints  dressed  to  full  depth.  All  bedded  in 
concrete,  and  joints  filled  same  as  the  paving  joints.  No  piece  less 
than  3  feet  long.  A  groove  i  inch  long  and  |-inch  deep  is  cut 
along  this  middle  line  of  upper  surface  of  each  stone. 

Second-Class  Streets. — For  second-class  streets  the  foundation  is 
either  as  has  just  been  described,  or  it  may  consist  of  "  6  inches  of 
bituminous  concrete,  made  of  clean,  angular,  broken  stone,  grouted 
with  a  hot  mixture  of  coal-pitch  and  creosote  oil,  covered  with 
chippings  and  thoroughly  consolidated  by  rolling  with  a  roller  of 
sufficient  weight." 

The  paving-blocks  are  granite  or  syenite,  and  the  blocks  are 
either  "  4-inch  cubes,  or  3//x5"  to  7'  and  6J"  deep,  or  3//x5"  to  7* and 
5"  deep."  Where  wood  is  used  the  blocks  are  4/rx5/r  to  7"  and  6" 
deep.  Where  cubes  are  used  starting  blocks  are  set  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  course  across  the  street,  so  as  to  insure  a  perfect  break- 
ing of  the  joints  in  passing  from  row  to  row. 

Third-Class  Streets. — For  third-class  streets  a  foundation  of 
hand-placed  rock  10  inches  deep  and  set  on  edge  is  laid.  Over 
this  enough  gravel  is  spread  to  fill  the  spaCes  and  form  a  smooth 
surface,  and  this  is  then  compacted  by  a  steam-roller.  The  blocks 
consist  of  4-inch  cubes  of  granite  or  syenite,  set  and  finished  in  the 
same  manner  as  first-class  on  |-inch  of  "  fine  gravel." 

Specifications  for  Blocks. — The  specifications  for  sets  require  that 
they  shall  be  equal  in  quality  and  toughness  to  the  standard  sam- 
ples, and  shall  be  dressed  and  gauged  with  equal  accuracy.  The 
maximum  deviations  allowed  are  one-quarter  inch  in  depth  and 
breadth  respectively.  This  is  readily  determined  by  placing  several 
of  them  in  close  contact  side  by  side  on  a  board. 

The  sizes  of  the  sets  are  often  varied,  inasmuch  as  a  large  num- 
ber of  set-dressers  are  engaged  to  re-dress  the  sets  taken  up  from  a 
street  requiring  repaving  for  use  in  other  streets,  and  what  the  old  sets 
will  re-dress  too  often  regulates  the  size  of  sets  used  in  certain  streets. 


12 


STONE    PAVEMENTS. 


The  accurate  gauging  of  sets  is  a  matter  of  which  the  advan- 
tage is  perhaps  not  fully  realized  outside  of  Liverpool,  but  it  should 
be  noted  that  if  any  good  work  is  to  be  executed  the  sets  when  laid 
should  be  in  parallel  and  even  courses,  and  if  the  sets  be  not  accu- 
rately gauged  to  one  uniform  size  the  result  is  either  a  badly  paved 
street,  with  the  courses  running  unevenly  and  bad  joints,  or  the  sets 
have  to  be  picked  on  the  ground,  put  into  courses  of  various  widths, 
and  to  be  laid  in  such  courses.  The  cost  of  this  is  far  in  excess  of 
any  additional  price  which  would  have  to  be  paid  at  the  quarry  for 
gauging  the  sets  to  one  uniform  width  in  the  first  instance,  and  my 
experience  has  always  been  that  although  gauged  sets  may  cost  is, 
6d.  per  ton  more  than  ungauged  sets,  there  is  eventually  a  consider- 
able saving  by  specifying  that  they  be  accurately  gauged  prior  to 
leaving  the  quarry.  As  regards  the  width  of  the  joints  of  the  sets, 
these  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  be  too  small.  It  is  a  mistaken  notion 
to  suppose  that  the  width  of  the  joints  makes  the  pavement  in  any 
way  safer,  as  the  inequalities  of  the  sets  give  sufficient  foot-hold. 
Wide  joints  are  open  to  very  great  objection  on  many  grounds,  and 
where  these  joints  are  grouted  in  lime  or  cement  instead  of  pitch 
and  creosote  oil  they  often  become  the  receptacles  for  all  filth.  Pay- 
ment is  made  by  weight,  and  not  by  number,  as  with  us. 

The  specifications  for  paving  contain  an  important  provision 
often  overlooked — viz.:  "suitable  screens  to  be  provided  wherever 
stones  are  being  chipped  or  dressed,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting 
pedestrians." 

Labor  and  Material. — The  whole  of  the  work  in  Liverpool  of 
paving  the  streets  and  the  construction  of  the  sewers  is  executed  by 
corporation  workmen  skilled  in  their  respective  callings,  at  the  low- 
est possible  prices  consistent  with  good  work,  and  the  material  is  of 
the  best  quality  and  selected  with  the  greatest  care.  The  most  dur- 
able syenite  only  is  used,  and  the  work  is  such  that  the  maintenance 
upon  it  for  a  series  of  years,  and  perhaps  long  after  the  original 
debt  has  been  recouped,  will  be  trifling. 

Traffic. — The  traffic  in  certain  of  the  streets  in  Liverpool  is  very 
exceptional,  and  ranges  as  follows: 


Name  of  street. 

Vehicular  traffic  in  tons  per 
yard   in    width    of    car- 
riage-way per  annum. 

Remarks. 

Great     Howard     Street 
(over  wooden  pave- 
ment)       

301,849  Tons. 

360,000     " 
216,570     " 

137,484    " 
148,995 

Bath    Street    and    New 

yuay)  
North  John  Street  

Lord  Street  

f  Exclusive    of    an    ag- 
gregate   tramway 
traffic    of    348,816 
[         tons  per  annum. 

Church  Street 

STONE    PAVEMENTS.  13 

The  above  figures  were  taken  in  1879.  ^  *ne  same  were  taken 
at  the  present  time  they  would  show  a  considerable  increase. 

Durability. — As  an  instance  of  the  quality  of  the  material  used  it 
may  be  stated  that  sets  have  been  taken  up  in  North  John  Street 
which  were  laid  in  1872,  with  a  traffic  of  216,570  tons  per  yard  in 
width  of  carriageway  per  annum,  and  the  wear  was  not  measurable. 
Although  the  work  executed  by  the  Health  Committee  of  the  Cor- 
poration of  Liverpool  may  often  be  described  as  expensive  and  ex- 
travagant, it  can  be  conclusively  shown  that  it  is  for  a  public  body 
which  never  dies  the  truest  economy,  and  far  cheaper  in  the  long  run 
than  the  system  which  too  often  obtains  under  the  plea  of  economy 
of  perpetually  expending  small  sums  in  maintenance.  The  result 
of  this  temporizing  policy  is  that  the  work  is  never  complete  or  as 
satisfactory  as  by  the  process  adopted  and  already  described  of  ex- 
ecuting public  works  in  the  best  possible  manner  in  the  first  instance, 
and  thus  reducing  the  annual  maintenance  charges  upon  them.  By 
this  means  the  sinking  fund  necessary  to  pay  off  the  original  debt  is 
provided  without  in  any  way  increasing  the  burden  of  the  ratepayers 
in  the  shape  of  increased  taxation. 

No  Boulder  Pavements. — Up  to  the  year  1872  many  of  the 
streets  of  the  city  were  private  and  mostly  paved  with  boulders,  but 
since  that  time  all  such  paving  has  been  prohibited,  and  no  private 
street  has  been  adopted  by  the  city  unless  paved,  flagged,  curbed, 
channeled,  and  otherwise  completed  in  accordance  with  the  specifi- 
cations applicable  to  the  street  due  to  its  circumstances  of  traffic. 

Within  the  last  few  years  over  a  million  and  a  quarter  superficial 
yards  of  set  paving  on  a  concrete  foundation  have  been  laid  in  streets 
either  macadamized  or  badly  paved,  the  boulders,  inferior  paving 
materials,  and  other  stones  being  utilized  for  concrete.  The  present 
cost  of  the  syenite  set  pavement  is  as  follows: 

Cost  of  Construction. — First-class  specification:  3x6-inch  sets  on 
a  6-inch  cement  concrete  foundation.  The  cost  per  superficial  yard, 
13^.  6d.  | 

Second-class  specification:  Four-inch  cubes  or  3x5 -inch  sets  on 
a  4  to  5 -inch  concrete  foundation.  Price  per  superficial  yard,  9*.  yd. 

Third-class  specification:  Four-inch  cubes  on  a  local  hand- 
pitched  foundation  10  to  12  inches  in  depth.  Price  per  superficial 
yard,  8^.  $d. 

Cost  of  Maintenance. — The  length  of  adopted  streets  in  Liver- 
pool under  maintenance  by  the  Corporation  is  about  249  miles,  and 
the  cost  of  their  maintenance  per  annum  in  the  best  possible  manner 
is  ,£7,400,  or  $37,000;  showing  that  the  superior  mode  of  execut- 
ing the  paving-works  in  Liverpool  has  a  resulting  maintenance 
charge  of  the  smallest  amount.  A  considerable  portion  of  this 


14  STONE    PAVEMENTS. 

small  annual  charge  is  due  to  the  cost  of  maintaining  certain  macad- 
amized roads,  which,  on  account  of  convenience,  it  is  considered 
advisable  to  maintain  as  such. 

In  1871,  when  the  mileage  of  streets  under  maintenance  was 
considerably  less,  these  charges  were  estimated  at  ^22,000  or 
$110,000. 

Disposal  of  Refuse. — As  the  wear  of  the  pavement  is  practically 
nothing,  the  scavenging  of  the  streets  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  the 
material  removed  from  the  streets  consisting  principally  of  manure, 
which  has  a  ready  sale.  In  a  city  such  as  Liverpool  this  is  a  matter 
of  the  greatest  importance,  as  the  collection  and  removal  of  road 
refuse  is  a  most  expensive  process,  inasmuch  as  the  material  has  to 
be  collected  at  a  considerable  cost  and  barged  away  in  specially 
constructed  steam  hopper-barges  to  sea  and  there  deposited.  The 
reduction  of  the  quantity  of  unsalable  road  refuse  effects  in  itself  a 
considerable  annual  saving,  and  is  an  important  element  in  showing 
that  the  best-class  pavements  are  the  cheapest  under  the  conditions 
stated. 

The  drawing  published  herewith  shows  the  various  cross-sections 
of  the  streets  as  paved  in  Liverpool,  with  the  respective  materials 
used.  The  footways  are  also  sometimes  completed  with  concrete 
slabs  especially  laid. 

The  area  of  the  city  is  5,210  acres,  and  the  population  is  approxi- 
mately 586,  320,  or  at  the  rate  of  112.5  per  acre. 

Sanitary  Conditions. — Liverpool  being  so  densely  built  upon 
and  being  the  largest  seaport,  it  is  especially  liable  to  the  importa- 
tion of  disease  or  the  occurrence  of  epidemics.  The  perfect  sewer- 
age and  the  internal  drainage  of  the  city,  together  with  the  imper- 
vious nature  of  the  streets  and  surroundings  and  the  rapid  collection 
of  all  refuse,  has  had  an  important  bearing  on  the  health  of  the 
community, and  it  is  this,  together  with  the  precautions  taken  by  the 
Medical  Officer  of  Health's  Department  and  other  agencies,  that 
has  tended  to  create  the  satisfactory  health  condition  of  the  city,  the 
death-rate  being  at  present  23  ^  per  1,000. 

REINSTATING     STONE     PAVEMENT.* 

We  are  glad  to  see  the  Times  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
Fifth  Avenue  pavement  is  taken  up  in  spots,  the  foundation  de- 
stroyed, and  when  the  blocks  are  replaced  they  are  simply  put  back 
in  the  sand.  We  noticed  an  instance  of  this  kind  in  front  of  the 
residence  of  Mr.  Cornelius  Vanderbilt  last  week.  On  inquiry,  the 
man  in  charge  stated  that  the  blocks  were  put  back  temporarily. 

*  Ed.,  xvii,  67. 


STONE    PAVEMENTS. 


&M 

•g-rts 


1 6  STONE    PAVEMENTS. 

We  shall  watch  with  interest  to  see  when  the  concrete  foundation  is 
properly  restored.  Our  opinion  is  that  every  opening  of  this  kind 
would  better  be  inclosed  and  travel  over  it  prohibited  until  the  de- 
partment can  restore  the  foundation  and  pavement  properly.  These 
temporary  repairs  simply  result  in  making  a  series  of  depressions  in 
the  whole  street,  and  breaking  down  the  edges  of  the  sound  pave- 
ments. 

If  such  makeshifts  were  not  tolerated  at  all,  but  the  disturbed 
places  kept  inclosed  until  perfectly  restored,  it  would  hasten  such 
restoration  and  in  the  end  save  much  inconvenience  and 
expense. 

INADEQUATE   METHOD   OF   PAVING    INSPECTION    IN    NEW    YORK.* 

Part  of  the  three  million  dollars  recently  appropriated  for  im- 
proving the  pavements  of  New  York  City  is  being  expended  in  re- 
placing the  old  Belgium  paving  in  Chambers  Street,  between  Park 
Row  and  Greenwich  Street,  by  a  pavement  of  granite  blocks,  in 
accordance  with  the  specifications  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Works. 

These  specifications  require,  among  other  things,  that  the  blocks 
shall  measure  on  their  upper  surface  not  less  than  8  nor  more  than 
10  inches  in  length  and  not  less  than  3^  nor  more  than  4^  inches  in 
width.  A  representative  of  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record 
recently  observed  in  some  of  the  pavement  just  laid  several  blocks 
13  to  15  J  inches  in  length,  and  5  to  5^  inches  in  width. 

This  clearly  shows  lack  of  a  proper  method  of  inspection  which, 
however,  it  is  difficult  to  secure  if  improper  material  is  allowed  to  be 
brought  on  the  ground  ;  only  the  exterior  blocks  can  be  inspected 
in  the  piles,  and  when  several  pavers  are  at  work  it  is  impossible  for 
one  inspector  to  watch  them  all,  and  after  the  blocks  have  been  laid 
only  their  faces  can  be  seen  and  that  with  difficulty,  as  the  blocks 
are  required  to  be  covered  with  sand  as  laid,  and  the  replacement  of 
a  block,  too  large  for  instance,  might  require  the  disturbance  of  sev- 
eral adjacent  blocks,  so  that  a  block  that  would  have  been  promptly 
rejected  if  seen  in  time  is  apt,  after  it  has  been  laid,  to  be  allowed  to 
remain  because  the  public  is  so  much  incommoded  by  the  accumu- 
lation of  rejected  blocks  and  delays  incurred,  all  of  which  is  taken 
advantage  of  by  some  contractors. 

The  simple  and  obvious  remedy,  as  we  have  pointed  out  on 
previous  occasions,  is  to  have  the  blocks  carefully  inspected  and 
culled  at  the  city  dock.  This  will  insure  the  use  of  proper  material 
and  leave  the  inspector  on  the  work  free  to  give  his  entire  attention 


*  Ed.,  xx,  313. 


STONE    PAVEMENTS. 

to  the  way  in  which  that  work  is  performed,  with  the  result,  as  we 
believe,  of  securing  a  much  needed  improvement  both  in  material 
and  workmanship.  Inspection  before  shipment  is  common  in  most 
engineering  work,  and  is  usually  preferred  by  the  contractor,  as  it 
saves  him  the  expense  of  forwarding  and  returning  unsatisfactory 
material. 

COMMISSIONER    GILROY    ON    PAVEMENT    SPECIFICATIONS.* 

Specifications  and  Inspection  of  Stone  Paving  Blocks  in  New 
York. — In  our  issue  of  November  2,  1889,  we  called  attention  to 
the  necessity  for  having  the  inspection  of  stone  paving  blocks  for 
New  York  City  at  the  docks  instead  of  in  the  street  where  the  pav- 
ing is  done,  giving  as  an  illustration  in  the  case  the  fact  that  blocks 
of  dimensions  other  than  those  fixed  by  the  specifications  were  used 
in  recent  work  on  Chambers  Street.  We  attributed  this  lax  enforce- 
ment of  specifications  to  methods  hitherto  in  vogue  in  this  city, 
partly  due  to  the  trouble  occasioned  store-keepers  and  the  public  by 
stoppage  of  traffic  and  delays  resulting  from  rejections  of  defective 
material  on  the  ground,  which  circumstance  is  taken  advantage  of 
by  contractors,  whether  they  supply  the  stone  or  lay  them.  A  Com- 
mercial Advertiser  reporter  called  the  attention  of  Public  Works 
Commissioner  Gilroy  to  our  article,  and  the  Commissioner's  explan- 
ation, as  reported  in  that  journal,  is  as  follows  : 

The  variations  from  the  standard  fixed,  which  are  pointed  out,  if  they 
exist,  are  very  exceptional,  I  believe.  Two  inspectors  are  employed  whose 
sole  business  is  to  see  that  the  blocks  used  are  of  the  right  kind.  You  see  that 
quite  a  margin  of  variation  is  allowed  in  the  specifications,  and  it  really 
does  not  matter  if  the  blocks  are  somewhat  longer  or  wider  than  the  speci- 
fications, provided  that  only  those  of  the  same  length  and  width  are  used 
in  the  same  course.  In  some  European  cities  blocks  18  inches  long  are 
regularly  used,  and  they  might  be  25  inches  without  harm,  provided  the 
size  of  the  blocks  in  the  same  course  was  uniform.  Often,  too,  longer 
blocks  are  needed  in  filling  out  a  course  owing  to  irregularities  in  the  street ; 
so,  a  comparatively  few  blocks  deviating  from  the  fixed  standard  are  really 
needed. 

Mr.  McManus,  the  Chief  Clerk  of  the  Water  Purveyor's  Office, 
under  whose  supervision  the  repaving  is  being  done,  said,  according 
to  the  same  journal : 

Some  irregularity  of  size  is  expected,  as  can  be  seen  from  the  specifi- 
cations. The  standard  of  length  quoted  by  the  Record  is  incorrect  and 
does  not  give  the  right  idea  of  the  sanction  permitted.  Instead  of  being 
fixed  at  8  to  10  inches,  it  is  from  8  to  12,  giving  a  greater  margin  for  the 
contractor.  The  reason  for  allowing  such  a  margin  is  that  a  difference  of 
a  few  inches  does  not  make  much  difference,  if  blocks  of  different  lengths 
are  not  mixed  up  in  the  same  course.  In  that  case  the  joints  are  irregular. 

*  Ed.,  xx.  347. 


l8  STONE    PAVEMENTS. 

A  course  is  technically  one  line  of  blocks  laid  across  the  street.  A  consid- 
erable allowance  for  variation  is  really  necessitated  by  the  irregularities  in 
the  size  and  direction  of  the  street,  a  lengthening  of  the  course,  in  one  case, 
calling  for  longer  blocks,  and  the  shortening,  in  another,  of  shorter  blocks  ; 
while  the  curve  of  a  street  may  call  for  a  corresponding  variation  in 
width. 

These  remarkable  explanations  amount  to  saying  that  the  speci- 
fications are  as  inadequate  as  the  inspection  was.  Or,  in  other 
words,  the  inspection  has  to  be  lax  because  the  specifications  are  too 
rigid,  and  the  fact  that  they  allow  a  wide  margin  of  variation  is 
gravely  put  forth  as  a  reason  for  permitting  a  great  deal  more.  This 
is  obvious  nonsense.  A  slip  of  the  pen  made  us  give  10  inches  as 
the  specified  length  of  the  block,  when  it  should  have  been  twelve, 
but  this  is  of  little  consequence  and  does  not  affect  the  main  ques- 
tion, since  the  important  practical  point  lies  in  the  width  of  the 
block  rather  than  the  length.  This  fact  the  Commissioner  and  his 
clerk  do  not  seem  to  understand.  In  our  first  reference  to  this  mat- 
ter we  made  no  criticism  of  the  specifications,  merely  calling  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  compliance  with  them  was  not  enforced.  We 
were  not,  however,  prepared  to  hear  the  Commissioner  of  Public 
Works  publicly  discredit  his  own  new  specifications,  and  openly 
advocate  a  departure  from  them  on  such  absurdly  inadequate  and 
imaginary  grounds.  Since,  however,  he  has  not  only  done  so,  but 
sought  to  justify  his  course  by  reference  to  the  practice  of  some 
European  cities,  not  named,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  tell  him  what 
the  best  European  practice  really  is — especially  as  to  width  of  blocks 
and  joints,  which  is  the  most  important  matter — since  it  is  that 
which  so  directly  affects  the  ability  of  a  horse  to  get  a  foot-hold  to 
haul  a  load  and  avoid  slipping.  For  this  purpose  we  quote  from 
the  series  of  articles  on  "Pavements  and  Street  Railroads,"  appear- 
ing in  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record. 

Stone  Pavements  in  Liverpool. — In  our  account  of  the  stone  block 
pavements  in  Liverpool,  recognized  as  models  the  world  over,  we 
published  a  description  of  the  present  practice,  prepared  for  us  by 
Clement  Dunscombe,  M.  Inst.,  C.  E.,  the  City  Engineer,  in  which, 
after  mentioning  the  preparation  of  the  foundation  of  Portland 
cement  concrete,  something  not  done  in  the  New  York,  except  in  an 
inadequate  manner  on  Fifth  Avenue,  it  is  stated  that  the  granite  or 
syenite  blocks,  or  "  sets,"  as  they  are  there  called,  are  laid  thereon 
with  close  joints.  They  are  3^  inches  by  3^  inches,  and  6J  inches 
deep,  or  in  streets  with  heavy  traffic  7^  inches.  The  maximum 
deviation  allowed  in  depth  and  breadth  is  one-quarter  of  an  inch. 
The  description  continues : 

The  accurate  guaging  of  sets  is  a  matter  of  which  the  advantage  is 
perhaps  not  fully  realized  outside  of  Liverpool,  but  it  should  be  noted  that 


STONE    PAVEMENTS.  19 

if  any  good  work  is  to  be  executed,  the  sets  when  laid  should  be  parallel  and 
in  even  courses  ;  and  if  the  sets  be  not  accurately  guaged  to  one  uniform 
size  the  result  is  either  a  badly  paved  street/with  the  courses  running  un- 
evenly and  bad  joints,  or  the  sets  have  to  be  picked  on  the  ground,  put  into 
courses  of  various  widths,  and  to  be  laid  in  such  courses.  The  cost  of  this 
is  far  in  excess  of  any  additional  price  which  would  have  to  be  paid  at  the 
quarry  for  gauging  the  sets  to  one  uniform  width  in  the  first  instance,  and 
my  experience  has  always  been,  that  although  gauged  sets  may  cost  is. 
t>d.  per  ton  more  than  ungauged  sets,  there  is  eventually  a  considerable 
saving  in  specifying  that  they  be  accurately  gauged  prior  to  leaving 
the  quarry.  As  regards  the  width  of  the  joints  of  the  sets,  these  cannot, 
in  my  opinion,  be  too  small.  It  is  a  mistaken  notion  to  suppose  that  the 
width  of  the  joints  makes  the  pavement  in  any  way  safer,  as  the  inequali- 
ties of  the  sets  give  sufficient  foot-hold.  Wide  joints  are  open  to  very  great 
objection  on  many  grounds,  and  when  these  joints  are  grouted  in  lime  or 
cement  instead  of  pitch  and  creosote  oil  they  often  become  the  receptacles 
for  all  filth.  [The  italics  are  ours.] 

New  York  Specifications. — The  New  York  specifications  permit 
i -inch  joints,  which  are  not  grouted  at  all,  while  the  blocks,  as 
already  stated,  are  specified  to  be  from  8  to  12  inches  long,  3^  to  4^ 
inches  wide,  and  7  to  8  inches  deep. 

And  these  specifications,  it  is  officially  announced,  are  not  ex- 
pected to  be  adhered  to.  Probably  no  city  in  the  world  has  heavier 
traffic  or  better  stone  pavements  than  Liverpool,  and  it  would  be 
well  to  profit  by  the  experience  there  gained.  There  is  every  facil- 
ity for  doing  equally  good  work  in  New  York,  and  the  generous  ap- 
propriation recently  made  for  improving  the  pavements  shows  that 
the  city  is  willing  to  pay  for  the  best  and  expects  to  get  it.  And  it 
is  to  be  regretted  that  so  competent  an  executive  officer  as  Commis- 
sioner Gilroy  should  so  far  forget  himself  as  to  talk  on  a  subject  on 
which  he  can  not  be  expected  to  be  an  expert,  and  evidently  has  yet 
a  great  deal  to  learn,  and  announce  the  dangerous  doctrine  that 
the  department's  specifications  are  not  expected  to  be  enforced. 

VIOLATION    OF    SPECIFICATIONS    ON    THE    CEDAR    STREET    PAVEMENT 

WORK.* 

As  we  go  to  press  a  member  of  our  staff  has  discovered  that  in 
the  new  paving  work  which  is  to  be  done  under  the  recent  three 
million  dollars  appropriation,  in  Cedar  Street,  New  York,  a  large 
number  of  the  blocks  on  the  ground,  /.  e.,  sidewalk,  exceed  the  size 
called  for  in  the  specification,  which  permits  a  variation  of  8  to  12 
inches  in  length,  3^  to  4^  in  width,  and  7  to  8  in  depth.  A  number 
of  these  blocks  measure  from  12  to  19  inches  in  length  and  from  4-| 
to  5  \  inches  in  width,  and  this  extra  width  is  a  most  serious  defect. 
The  specifications,  based  upon  the  experience  of  engineers  in  all  the 

*xx,  346. 


2O  STONE    PAVEMENTS. 

cities  that  have  decent  pavements,  explicitly  provide  (the  clause  be- 
ing in  italics),  that  none  of  the  old  pavement  can  be  disturbed  while 
any  unfit  or  rejected  material  remains  on  the  ground.  In  defiance 
of  this  clear  and  most  important  provision  the  street  is  torn  up  from 
Nassau  to  Pearl  Street,  traffic  is  suspended,  the  street  is  a  mud-hole, 
and  store-keepers  are  subjected  to  loss.  We  suggest  that  our  con- 
temporaries of  the  daily  press  give  this  matter  their  attention.  Mer- 
chants on  the  street  should  be  able  to  recover  damages  from  parties 
responsible  for  causing  this  needless  interruption  to  their  business. 

i 

GRANITE    BLOCKS    VS.  ASPHALT    IN    CINCINNATI.* 

About  $2,000,000  will  be  spent  on  paving  the  streets  of  Cincin- 
nati during  1887,  with  either  granite  blocks  or  asphalt.  About  one 
mile  and  a  half  of  one  street  has  been  laid  in  asphalt,  while  several 
miles  have  been  laid  in  granite  blocks.  The  latter  is  deemed  best 
for  heavy  hauling,  but  the  former  shows  no  sign  of  wear,  although 
put  down  last  summer,  and  since  then  subjected  to  the  severest 
test,  as,  owing  to  its  smoothness,  all  sorts  of  vehicles  have  crowded 
upon  it.  Citizens  living  on  streets  yet  to  be  paved  are  petitioning 
for  asphalt  instead  of  granite  blocks.  If  the  same  care  is  taken 
with  laying  the  streets  next  year  as  was  this,  Cincinnati  will  have  the 
smoothest  roadways  of  any  city  in  the  United  States. 

GRANITE,    SANDSTONE    AND    LIMESTONE    FOR    PAVING. f 

A  report  on  pavements,  made  to  the  Common  Council  of  Topeka, 
Kan.,  refers  to  stone  pavements  as  follows  : 

For  this  use,  Medina  and  Colorado  sandstone,  they  say,  take  first  rank 
as  to  durability.  Omaha  and  Kansas  City  are  using  Sioux  Falls  and  Mis- 
souri granite.  While  the  granite  may  be  somewhat  more  lasting,  the  sand- 
stone is  very  durable,  is  less  noisy,  and  has  the  advantage  of  not  becoming 
polished  or  glossy  in  use.  Hard  Argentine  limestone  was  tried  in  Kansas 
City  on  a  concrete  foundation,  but,  being  set  on  edge,  it  wore  unevenly, 
and  in  a  year  or  two  was  shivered  and  split  by  the  frost,  and  has  had  to  be 
replaced  by  granite  and  limestone.  This  is  the  universal  experience  of  all 
cities  using  limestone  blocks. 

Captain  Greene,  of  Washington,  states  that  granite  pavements  there 
have  given  satisfaction,  except  on  the  score  of  noise.  This  has  led  to  its 
restriction  to  streets  having  exceptionally  heavy  traffic,  and  a  desire  for  the 
substitution  of  asphalt  even  on  these. 


xv,  20.  fxv>  375- 


CHAPTER    II. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

WOOD    PAVEMENT    IN    THE    METROPOLIS.* 

SINCE  wood  and  asphalt  pavements  have  been  extensively 
adopted  in  the  best  paved  thoroughfares  of  London  and  Paris,  and 
since  the  American  experience  with  wood  pavements  has  been  unsat- 
isfactory because  of  the  improper  methods  adopted  in  laying  them,  and 
lack  of  care  after  being  laid,  we  have  thought  it  well  to  reprint  in 
this  series  the  paper  by  George  Henry  Stayton,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.E., 
with  an  abstract  of  the  discussion  thereon,  which  was  had  before  the 
Institution  in  1884. 

Though  the  paper  deals  with  wood  pavements,  for  which  the 
author  apparently  has  a  preference,  yet  with  the  discussion  and  crit- 
icism it  elicited  it  is  a  valuable  contribution  on  this  subject,  which 
our  American  readers  will,  we  believe,  appreciate. 

The  necessity  for  stimulating  the  efforts  of  those  persons  who  are  act- 
ively engaged  in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  street  carriageway 
pavements  in  the  metropolis  and  large  cities  was  strenuously  urged  during 
the  discussions  at  the  Institution  in  1879,  when  the  subject  was  brought  for- 
ward by  Mr.  Deacon  and  by  Mr.  Howard.  The  object  of  this  paper  is  to 
call  attention  to  the  various  wood-pavement  works  recently  executed  in  the 
metropolis,  and  to  a  comparison  of  the  results  obtained  thereby.  Although 
the  paper  may  not  contain  much  that  is  new,  the  author  ventures  to  think 
that  the  general  interest  evinced  in  works  which  tend  to  the  efficient  and 
economical  maintenance  of  the  carriageways  of  important  thoroughfares, 
and  the  direct  bearing  which  such  works  have  upon  the  comfort  and  con- 
venience of  a  community,  may  be  sufficient  to  justify  a  review  of  the  pro- 
gress in  this  system  of  pavement, 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  consider  for  one  moment  the  extent  of 
the  streets  of  the  metropolis,  and  the  nature  of  the  materials  of  which  the 
carriageways  thereof  are  formed ;  and  the  author  desires  to  tender  his 
warmest  acknowledgments  to  the  president,  who  in  his  official  capacity  as 
the  Chief  Engineer  to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  furnished  him  with 
valuable  data,  and  to  Mr.  W.  Haywood,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  the  city  engineer, 
and  to  forty-three  chief  surveyors  of  parishes  and  districts  of  the  metropo- 
lis, for  their  courtesy  in  replying  to  his  communications  thereon.  The  in- 
formation thus  obtained  has  enabled  him  to  present  it  in  the  tabulated  form 
which  will  be  found  in  Table  I.  in  the  appendix,  according  to  which  it  ap- 
pears that  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  year  the  aggregate  length 

*  xvi,  322.     A  paper  by  George  Henry  Stayton,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.  E. , 
and  printed  in  the  Minutes  of  the  Proceedings. 


22  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

of  the  streets  of  London  amounted  to  1,966  miles.  Of  that  length,  how- 
ever, 248  miles  are  at  present  "  new"  street,  inasmuch  as  they  have  not 
been  adopted  by  a  local  authority;  consequently  there  are  1,718  miles  of 
public  streets  under  the  maintenance  of  the  various  authorities,  the  car- 
riageways of  which  consist  of  the  following  materials — viz.  : 

Miles. 

Macadam 573 

Granite 280 

Wood 53 

Asphalt 13^ 

Flints  or  gravel 798^ 

Total 1,718 

The  extent  of  the  vehicular  traffic  is  equally  remarkable,  the  result  of 
inquiries  instituted  by  the  author  showing  that  in  the  metropolis  alone,  at 
the  present  time,  there  are  approximately  100,000  horses  and  40,000  vehicles, 
the  licensed  cabs  numbering  10,381,  and  omnibuses,  etc.,  2,223,  and  the  es- 
timated value  of  the  horses,  harness,  and  vehicles  amounts  to  no  less  than 
,£5, 000,000  sterling.  Obviously  the  ordinary  wear  and  tear  of  these 
vehicles  must  in  a  great  measure  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  street 
carriageways. 

No  doubt  many  members  of  the  Institution  have  a  vivid  recollection  of 
the  extremely  unsatisfactory  state  of  those  macadamized  carriageways  in 
leading  West-end  thoroughfares,  which  have  given  place  to  wood  pave- 
ment. It  was  rarely  the  case  that  such  roadways  were  in  a  good  state  of 
repair  ;  on  a  hot  summer  day  they  invariably  emitted  disagreeable  smells 
and  frequently  gave  off  a  great  amount  of  dust ;  and  it  is  scarcely  possible 
to  conceive  anything  more  deplorable  than  the  state  of  such  streets  when- 
ever the  surface  became  greasy  or  sloppy  after  rain.  All  things  considered, 
there  was  not  only  undoubted  cause  for  dissatisfaction,  but  ample  justifica- 
tion in  the  outcry  against  the  former  state  of  things  ;  as,  what  with  damage 
to  horses,  harness,  vehicles,  and  pedestrians'  clothing,  together  with  the 
sheer  waste  of  money  in  laying  down  broken  granite  to  be  ground  into 
mud,  an  alteration  was  most  necessary. 

The  efficient  condition  of  street  carriageways  is  essentially  a  ratepay- 
ers' question,  and  the  unprecedented  adoption  of  wood  as  a  paving  mate- 
rial in  substitutions  of  macadam,  proves  that  several  of  the  metropolitan 
vestries  and  other  authorities  have  taken  a  new  departure,  and  apparently  a 
step  in  the  right  direction.  In  expressing  this  opinion  it  will  be  readily  un- 
derstood that  the  author  in  no  way  desires  to  pass  over  the  respective  mer- 
its of  granite,  asphalt,  or  bituminous  concrete  pavements,  and  of  roadways 
formed  with  broken  granite,  flints,  or  gravel,  as  they  are  undoubtedly  suitable 
for  certain  localities,  and  in  many  cases  are  economical  as  compared  with 
wood.  While  therefore  it  is  asserted  that  a  properly  constructed  wood  pave- 
ment possesses  the  advantages  of  noiselessness,  surface  elasticity,  safety, 
and  cleanliness,  and  is  pre-eminently  suitable  and  economical  for  business 
and  residential  thoroughfares  having  a  high  traffic  standard,  it  should  not 
be  forgotten  that  in  the  case  of  narrow  business  streets  leading  out  of  main 
thoroughfares,  wood  pavement  might  be  unsuitable,  as  by  reason  of  the  un- 
importance of  the  vehicular  traffic,  the  blocks  would  probably  decay  inter- 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  23 

nally  long  before  they  were  worn  out  by  the  traffic.  For  such  reasons,  and 
from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  it  would  appear  that  asphalt  would  not  only 
be  preferable,  but  also  eminently  suitable. 

Large  sums  of  money  were  expended  during  the  early  years  of  wood 
pavement  revival,  in  the  acquisition  of  patent  rights  of  doubtful  value,  in 
experimenting  thereon,  and  in  foolish  contracts.  These  stages  have  been 
surmounted,  and  the  result  is  that  street  paving  in  the  West-end  has  been 
almost  revolutionized  within  a  few  years.  Wood  pavment  has  been  termed 
a  "  West-end  luxury,"  and  in  one  sense  the  assertion  is  perhaps  justifiable, 
inasmuch  as  not  more  than  4.38  per  cent,  of  the  wood  pavement  in  London 
is  east  of  the  city,  or  south  of  the  Thames. 

Extent  and  Construction. — The  superficial  area  of  wood  pavement  laid 
in  London  during  the  last  ten  years  has  been  980,533  square  yards,  its 
length  53^  miles,  and  the  cost  of  its  construction,  together  with  subsidiary 
works,  has  probably  involved  an  outlay  of  ^"600,000.  It  is  now  possible  to 
drive  through  wood-paved  main  thoroughfares  for  a  distance  of  several 
miles  ;  (e.g.')  wood  pavement  is  practically  continuous  from  London  Bridge, 
the  exception  being  the  eastern  part  of  the  Strand,  to  any  of  the  stations  be- 
tween Chelsea  and  Uxbridge  Road  on  the  West  London  Railway. 

Obviously,  much  valuable  experience  and  data  have  thus  been  gained 
as  to  the  best  mode  of  construction  and  maintenance,  and  as  the  author 
ventures  to  think  that  a  paper  on  wood  pavement  would  be  incomplete  unless 
it  embraced  every  detail,  however  simple,  he  will  endeavor  to  discuss  the 
various  points  which  arise,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  whether  wood  has 
practically  realized  the  expectation  that  it  would  prove  to  be  a  safe,  con- 
venient, and  economical  material  for  street  carriageway  pavements. 

The  suitability  of  ' '  wood  as  a  paving  material  under  heavy  traffic  "  was 
so  fully  treated  by  Mr.  Howarth  in  1879,  that  the  author  thinks  it  unneces- 
sary to  refer  in  detail  to  questions  which  have  reference  to  the  proper 
growth  of  wood,  the  cause  and  effect  of  wear  and  tear,  and  the  method 
adopted  for  recording  the  traffic  ;  the  object  being  to  describe  at  length  the 
various  points  of  construction  which  have  hitherto  been  only  partially  con- 
sidered, together  with  particulars  of  recent  modifications. 

Excavation. — The  suggestion  has  been  made  that  macadamized  car- 
riageways might  be  broken  up  expeditiously  with  the  aid  of  explosive  mix- 
tures, but  the  author  would  hesitate  to  try  it ;  as,  however  slight  the  con- 
cussion and  vibration  might  be,  there  is  little  doubt  that  gas  and  water 
mains  and  services,  especially  those  which  have  been  in  existence  for  a 
considerable  period,  would  be  injured.  Practically  there  is  little  variation 
in  the  method  adopted,  the  main  object  being  to  get  the  work  done  as  quickly 
as  possible.  In  preparing  for  the  construction  of  the  wood-pavement  works 
in  Chelsea,  the  method  of  operation  consisted  in  breaking  up  the  macada- 
mized carriageways  by  driving  steel  wedges  into  and  through  the  consoli- 
dated layer  of  broken  granite,  commonly  called  mac,  at  intervals  of  a  few 
feet.  The  surface  or  crust  being  thus  "  started,"  its  removal  was  effected 
by  prizing  it  upwards  in  lumps  of  a  square  yard  or  more  with  stout  hand- 
levers,  6  to  8  feet  long,  after  which  it  was  easily  disintegrated.  As  a  rule, 
a  depth  of  9  inches  of  macadam  was  thus  removed  prior  to  the  excavation 
of  some  five  or  six  inches  of  foundation. 

In  those  instances  where  the  carriageway  had  previously  been  paved 
with  granite  upon  a  concrete  foundation,  as  in  Oxford  Street,  it  was  found 
unnecessary  to  disturb  the  concrete,  since  by  adding  about  2  inches  thereto, 


24  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

and  floating  the  surface,  a  satisfactory  foundation  was  obtained,  and  con- 
siderable expenditure  avoided. 

Levels  and  Contour. — When  the  width  of  a  street  is  irregular,  and  the 
levels  of  the  footways  on  either  side  vary  considerably,  it  is  sometimes 
not  a  little  complex  to  satisfactorily  determine  the  question  of  level  and 
contour;  but  when  the  longitudinal  inclination  is  naturally  slight  and 
uniform,  the  width  parallel,  and  the  footways  nearly  correspond  in  level,  as 
in  Sloane  Street,  a  very  simple  rule  may  be  observed. 

The  practice  of  the  author  has  been  to  first  determine  the  level  of  the 
crown  or  vertex  of  the  carriageway  to  be  paved,  and  next  to  set  out  the  levels 
of  the  channels,  by  allowing  a  rise  to  the  crown  equivalent  to  i  inch  in  3  feet 
(¥^)  above  the  mean  channel  level.  By  slightly  flattening  the  crown,  Fig.  i, 
it  will  be  observed  that  a  contour  is  obtained  which  not  only  renders  traffic 
easy,  but  is  of  pleasing  appearance,  and  satisfactory  in  other  points. 

Whenever  practicable,  the  longitudinal  inclinations  of  the  channels 
should  not  exceed  i  in  150,  and  it  is  desirable  that  the  minimum  depth  of 
curb  exposed  at  the  summit  of  a  channel  should  be  2^  inches,  with  a  maxi- 
mum depth  of  6|  inches  at  a  gulley.  By  the  observance  of  this  rule  it 
necessarily  follows,  that  in  a  tolerably  level  street  the  provision  of  street- 
gulleys  becomes  an  important  item,  but  the  extra  cost,  about  4  per  cent., 
which  their  construction  entails,  is  amply  repaid,  not  only  by  the  convenient 
and  uniform  appearance  of  the  carriageway,  but  in  the  prompt  and  effectual 
removal  of  rain-water  from  the  surface  of  the  pavement.  The  author  sub- 
mits that  this  is  an  element  of  success  in  the  construction  of  wood  pavement 
which  unfortunately,  is  too  often  overlooked. 

The  longitudinal  crown-level  should  be  uniformly  sustained  from  street 
to  street  whenever  practicable,  so  as  to  prevent  undulations;  and  it  is  like- 
wise important  that  the  crown  should  be  extended  transversely  at  all  inter- 
sections, partly  for  the  sake  of  appearance,  but  mainly  to  obviate  the  unpleas- 
ant effect  which  is  caused  by  driving  over  a  channel.  The  neglect  of  this 
rule  is  very  apparent  upon  observing  the  effect  of  vehicular  traffic  over  the 
crossings  to  Rutland  Gate  and  Princess  Gate  on  the  south  side  of  the  Ken- 
sington High  Road. 

Foundation. — It  is  satisfactory  to  note  that  foundations  consisting  of 
single  or  double  planks  placed  upon  a  bed  of  sand  have  been  completely 
discarded,  and  that  the  fallacies  of  the  so-called  elastic  foundation  have 
given  place  to  a  more  permanent  system.  It  was  only  necessary,  shortly 
after  a  fall  of  rain,  to  witness  the  effect  of  a  vehicle  being  rapidly  driven 
over  a  pavement  which  had  been  laid  on  the  former  system  for  a  period  of 
two  or  three  years,  to  have  ocular  demonstration  of  its  utter  unworthiness. 
The  series  of  little  fountains  of  dirty  water  which  have  spurted  up  in  the 
wheel  tracks  from  the  open  joints  would  soon  have  dispelled  the  hopes  of 
the  most  ardent  believer  in  the  theory  ;  and  the  result  not  only  made  it 
inconvenient  for  pedestrians,  but  very  soon  caused  the  pavement  to  go  to 
pieces. 

Although  lias-lime  concrete  has  been  used  as  a  foundation,  it  may 
safely  be  asserted  that  90  per  cent,  of  the  existing  wood  pavement  is  laid 
upon  Portland  cement  concrete.  The  latter,  properly  prepared,  is  absolutely 
impervious,  and  as  a  solid  and  sound  foundation  is  essential  for  a  first-class 
pavement,  the  author  fails  to  see  that  a  more  suitable  material  can  be  sub- 
stituted. From  a  variety  of  causes  the  strength  of  the  concrete  actually 
used  appears  to  have  varied  from  5  to  7  parts  of  Thames  ballast  to  i  part 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  25 

of  Portland  cement.  In  the  commencement  of  the  Chelsea  works  the  pro- 
portion was  6  to  i  ;  but  it  was  sox>n  found  desirable  to  provide  a  quicker- 
setting  concrete,  to  enable  the  street  to  be  reopened  at  the  earliest  possible 
moment,  The  exact  proportions,  as  measured  out  in  boxes,  subsequently 


fffj 


consisted  of  33  cubic  feet  of  ballast  to  6.4  cubic  feet  sand,  5  bushels  of 
cement,  or  about  5#  to  i. 

It  is  almost  superfluous  to  state  that  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to 
insure  the  use  of  none  but  good  cement.     With  this  object  in  view,  numer- 


26  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

cms  samples  of  the  cement  supplied  for  the  Chelsea  works  were  tested,  the 
average  result  of  197  tests  by  Mr.  H.  Faija,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  showing  the 
strength  and  quality  to  be  : 

Weight  per  imperial  striked  bushel  H5-45  Ibs. 

Specific  gravity 2.98 

Fineness  (25  gauge-sieve) 4. 18  per  cent. 

(50  "         ) 26.91 

Tensile  strength  per  square  inch  at  7  days ...       571  Ibs. 

28    "     677    " 

The  full  particulars  of  the  tests  are  given  in  the  Appendix  to  the  Pro- 
ceedings (Table  II.). 

The  ground  having  been  carefully  bottomed  up,  regulated,  punned, 
and  when  necessary  watered,  small  ridges  of  concrete,  technically  called 
"  screeds,"  were  formed  to  the  required  levels  and  contour.  The  ballast 
and  cement  for  the  concrete  were  measured  out  and  mixed  upon  a  platform, 
and  twice  turned  over  dry,  water  being  subsequently  added  by  means  of  a 
small  hose  attached  to  a  stand-pipe.  Just  sufficient  water  was  used  to 
obtain  a  fair  consistency,  and  as  soon  as  the  materials  were  well  incorpo- 
rated, the  concrete  was  either  wheeled  or  thrown  into  place,  to  a  minimum 
depth  of  6  inches.  To  obtain  a  perfectly  smooth  and  uniform  surface,  the 
concrete  was  floated  and  "  ruled  "  transversely  to  the  required  contour  by 
means  of  a  curved  rule,  and  in  four  or  five  days  it  became  sufficiently  hard 
and  ready  to  receive  the  wood  blocks. 

That  an  excellent  foundation  was  obtained  has  been  frequently  ascer- 
tained by  means  of  the  numerous  gas  and  water  trenches  which  have  been 
made.  To  break  through  the  concrete  necessitates  considerable  force,  and 
the  use  of  sledge-hammers  and  steel  wedges,  and  specimens  prove  that  it 
is  perfectly  sound  and  good.  The  entire  cost  in  situ  averaged  2s.  ^\d.  per 
square  yard,  an  amount  which  compares  favorably  with  other  concretes  ; 
and  if  time  were  not  so  important  an  element  in  street  closing,  it  might 
have  been  executed  at  a  cheaper  rate  by  decreasing  the  proportion  of 
cement.  The  cost  per  square  yard  is  made  up  of  the  following  items — viz. : 

s.  d. 

o.  166  cubic  yard  Thames  ballast,  at  3 s.  ^d. o  6| 

0.74  bushel  Portland  cement,  including  extra  for  facing,  at 

is.   n.d. i  5 

Labor  in  measuring,  mixing,  wheeling,  laying  and  ruling. . .  o  4 


Total  per  square  yard 2     3-| 

In  the  concrete  foundation  for  Fulham  Road  a  considerable  quantity  of 
the  old  broken  granite  was  screened  and  mixed  with  Thames  ballast,  with 
a  view  to  practically  testing  the  assertion  that  an  equally  serviceable  but 
cheaper  concrete  could  thus  be  obtained.  A  similar  system  has  been  some- 
what largely  adopted  in  other  metropolitan  districts,  and  notwithstanding 
that  a  saving  of  about  ^d.  per  square  yard  was  effected  in  the  Fulham  Road 
pavement,  the  author  is  not  encouraged  to  view  the  practice  favorably,  and 
does  not  propose  to  revert  to  it  in  future  works.  He  ventures  to  assert  that 
not  only  is  the  old  granite  of  greater  value  for  street  repairs  in  less  import- 
ant thoroughfares,  but  that  consequent  upon  its  dirty  condition,  the  efficacy 
of  the  cement  is  somewhat  impaired  ;  that  the  concrete  so  formed  is  not  so 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  2^ 

homogeneous  as  pure  ballast  concrete,  and  that  it  will  eventually  prove  to 
be  less  durable  than  the  latter.  In  support  of  this  view  it  was  recently 
ascertained  by  a  sample  taken  up  from  Fulham  Road  that  such  concrete  is 
undoubtedly  of  inferior  quality,  and  the  labor  exerted  in  breaking  through 
it  was  remarkably  small  as  compared  with  the  former  material. 

Blocks. — The  best  form  and  material  for  wood-pavement  foundation 
having  been  ascertained,  a  question  of  the  utmost  importance  arises — 
namely,  which  of  the  various  kinds  of  wood  available  is  the  most  durable 
and  economical?  Until  this  question  has  been  satisfactorily  answered  it 
cannot  be  maintained  that  the  difficulty  has  been  surmounted  ;  in  fact,  to 
the  absence  of  reliable  information  thereon,  it  is  undoubtedly  possible  to 
trace  the  cause  of  many  wood  pavements  becoming  prematurely  ' '  worn 
out "  after  four  or  five  years'  wear.  Many  theories  have  been  asserted  as 
to  the  merits  of  various  woods,  and  a  large  number  of  the  latter  have 
received  a  practical  test,  among  them  being  Baltic  and  Dantzic  fir,  pitch 
pine,  spruce,  beech,  larch,  oak,  elm,  and  ash.  The  shape  of  the  blocks  has 
received  no  little  attention,  inasmuch  as  under  various  systems  they  have 
been  cut  into  rectangular,  oblique,  hexagonal,  octagonal,  square,  and  other 
forms,  and  of  varying  dimensions. 

Considerable  diversity  of  practice  has  also  existed  with  regard  to  the  con- 
dition in  which  wood  has  been  laid,  some  blocks  having  been  laid  in  the 
natural  state  of  the  wood,  whilst  others  have  either  been  "dipped  "  in  creo- 
sote oil,  or  "  dressed"  with  pitch,  and  in  a  few  instances  they  have  been 
properly  creosoted.  Within  the  last  six  or  seven  years  the  greater  portion 
of  the  wood  'pavement  laid  in  the  metropolis  has  consisted  of  rectangular 
blocks  of  Swedish  yellow  deal,  or  red  deal,  or  pitch  pine,  but  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  thousands  of  blocks  of  an  inferior  nature  have  also  been  laid, 
after  being  subjected  to  the  process  of  "  dipping  "  or  "  pickling." 

Prior  to  adopting  wood  pavement  in  Chelsea,  the  author  inspected 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  various  systems  then  laid  in  London  (February, 
1879),  and  gave  their  respective  merits  every  consideration,  the  outcome 
thereof  being  that  a  plain  and  substantial  system  was  considered  the  most 
desirable.  The  blocks  found  most  suitable,  and  of  which  there  is  an  abun- 
dant supply,  were  those  cut  from  Swedish  yellow_  deals  (Gothenburg  thirds),  \ 
and  if  blocks  cut  from  close  and  evenly  grained,  well-seasoned,  and  thor-  • 
oughly  bright  and  sound  deals  of  that  description  were  always  used,  the 
author  thinks  that  the}7  would  not  fail  to  give  satisfaction.  In  the  construc- 
tion of  wood  pavement,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  constant  super- 
vision should  be  exercised  with  a  view  to  insuring  the  rejection  of  improper 
blocks,  or  blocks  which  possess  even  a  suspicion  of  being  sappy,  knotty, 
badly  cut,  or  otherwise  unsound,  or  which  have  been  cut  of  dead  wood,  or 
wood  which  has  been  stacked  in  dock  for  too  long  a  period.  If  this  system 
is  faithfully  carried  out,  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  is  at  present  any  better 
wood  in  the  market,  of  which  sufficient  quantities  can  be  promptly  obtained, 
and  which  so  satisfactorily  stands  the  wear  and  tear  of  traffic  and  the 
changes  of  atmosphere  and  climate,  than  Swedish  yellow  deal,  when  laid  in 
its  natural  state. 

The  result  of  heavy  traffic  upon  various  kinds  of  wood  unquestionably 
demonstrates  that  of  hard  woods  pitch-pine  takes  a  high  place.  The  price, 
however,  is  considerably  in  advance  of  fir,  and  the  irregular  sizes  of  the 
deals  creates  much  difficulty  ;  but  if  a  satisfactory  supply  from  South  Amer- 
ica in  prime  condition  could  always  be  relied  upon,  it  would  no  doubt  be 


28  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

largely  adopted.  A  section  comprising  756  square  yards  was  laid  with 
pitch-pine  blocks  in  King's  Road,  four  and  a  half  years  since,  as  an  experi- 
ment, and  the  ascertained  depth  of  the  annual  vertical  wear  of  the  wood 
during  that  period,  as  will  be  seen  by  Table  III.  in  the  Appendix,  is  0.055 
inch  only.  Experience  proves  that  its  abrasive  wear  is  better  than  yellow 
deal,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  drys  quicker  and  is  cleaner  ;  and  although  pitch-pine 
takes  the  best  position  as  regards  vertical  wear,  its  extreme  hardness  may 
be  considered  a  drawback.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  case  of  rapid 
traffic,  when  the  wheels  of  vehicles  have  lost  the  rolling  motion  and  strike 
the  surface  with  great  force.  It  is  then  that  the  smallness  of  the  elasticity 
attached  to  pitch-pine  becomes  apparent,  by  a  jarring,  bumping  motion, 
which  is  far  from  agreeable. 

Dantzic  fir  is  durable,  but  would  probably  be  attended  with  inconven- 
ience and  waste  in  converting  the  balks  into  ordinary-sized  paving  blocks. 
Neither  elm  nor  oak  blocks  would  withstand  the  atmospheric  changes  to 
which  street  surfaces  are  exposed.  Larch  would  probably  take  a  high  posi- 
tion as  a  street-paving  material  on  account  of  its  hardness  and  durability, 
but  the  available  supply  is  apparently  too  limited  to  permit  its  extensive 
adoption.  There  is  little  doubt  that  American  spruce  has  been  laid  in  Lon- 
don streets  under  certain  conditions,  but  such  wood  cannot  be  regarded  as 
suitable  or  durable. 

Preparatory  Treatment  of  the  Blocks. — A  brief  reference  has  already 
been  made  to  the  preparatory  treatment  which  blocks  have  received.  In 
many  instances  they  have  been  subjected  to  the  process  of  being  "dipped  "  in 
a  mixture  of  creosote  oil  and  other  ingredients,  while  in  a  few  instances  they 
have  been  creosoted  or  mineralized,  but  at  least  one-third  have  been  laid  in  a 
plain  or  natural  state.  The  author  has  little  faith  in  the  ordinary  "  dipping  " 
process  as  a  means  of  preserving  the  wood  ;  and  upon  severing  "  dipped  " 
blocks  which  have  been  laid  for  two  or  three  years,  it  will  be  found  that  a 
mere  external  discoloration  only  exists.  Indeed  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain 
the  nature  of  the  merit  which  the  process  is  supposed  to  possess,  and  there 
may  even  be  truth  in  the  assertion  that  it  is  worse  than  useless,  as  unfortu- 
nately, unscrupulous  persons  have  taken  advantage  of  it  as  a  means  of 
covering  up  the  shortcomings  of  defective  or  inferior  blocks. 

A  great  deal  has  been  written  as  to  the  value  of  creosoted  blocks,  and, 
by  way  of  experiment,  a  short  section  upon  this  system  was  also  laid  in 
King's  Road,  the  blocks  creosoted  being  selected  yellow  deal.  They  were 
subjected  to  Bethell's  patent  process,  7  pounds  of  hot  creosote  oil  per  cubic 
foot,  equal  to  10.66  blocks,  being  injected  ;  and  the  ascertained  depth  of 
annual  wear  averages  0.139  inch  against  0.055  inch  for  pitch-pine,  and  0.144 
inch  for  plain  yellow  deal.  The  creosoted  blocks  when  taken  up  for  exam- 
ination were  moist  internally,  and  came  up  easily,  whereas  the  plain  blocks 
and  the  pitch-pine  blocks  required  considerable  force  to  remove  them.  The 
author  has  invariably  noticed  that  the  creosoted  section  is  less  clean  than 
any  other,  and  he  certainly  doubts  the  wisdom  of  a  system  which  is  not  only 
20  per  cent,  more  costly,  but  to  a  certain  extent  closes  the  fibres  of  the 
wood,  and  tends  to  produce  premature  internal  decay.  When  the  latter 
sets  up,  it  will  very  soon  be  found  that  the  traffic  causes  the  fibres  to 
spread,  which  is  quickly  followed  by  the  complete  destruction  of  the 
wood. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  reputation  of  wood  pavement  has 
seriously  suffered  on  account  of  the  use  of  unsound  and  inferior  wood.  This 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  29 

may  be  traced  to  several  causes,  either  the  acceptance  of  extremely  low 
tenders  from  inexperienced  persons,  want  of  sound  judgment  in  selecting 
the  deals,  carelessness,  insufficient  supervision,  especially  when  the  work  is 
hurriedly  done,  or  downright  neglect.  The  experience  of  the  author  is, 
that  even  with  fairly  good  supervision  it  is  possible  for  defective  blocks  to 
be  laid,  and  it  cannot  therefore  be  surprising  that  unsound  wood  is  used 
when  carelessness,  indifference,  or  neglect  is  exhibited.  As  an  instance  of 
the  success  of  close  supervision,  the  short  section  of  wood  pavement  at  the 
extreme  north  end  of  Sloane  Street  may  be  mentioned.  The  ascertained 
traffic,  which  consists  in  a  great  measure  of  carriages  and  cabs,  is  equal  to 
371  tons  per  yard  width  per  day,  or  upwards  of  100,000  tons  per  annum  ; 
and  although  the  wood  has  been  laid  for  four  and  a  half  years,  the  blocks 
have  only  worn  f-inch,  or  0.083  inch  per  annum,  and  the  surface  is  in  excel- 
lent condition.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  too  strongly  urged  that  street 
authorities  should  not  only  invariably  pay  a  fair  price  for  work,  but  should 
provide  ample  and  competent  supervision,  if  they  desire  to  prevent  wood 
pavement  from  being  brought  into  disrepute. 

Size  of  the  Blocks. — There  is  little  variation  in  the  dimensions  of  the 
blocks,  the  general  size  being  9  inches  long,  6  inches  deep,  and  3  inches  wide. 
The  lengths  have  frequently  varied  from  8  inches  to  n  inches,  in  several 
instances  the  depth  has  varied  from  5  inches  to  7  inches,  but  the  width,  3 
inches,  has  almost  been  universally  adhered  to,  it  being  apparently  the 
best  size  for  foot-hold,  and  most  convenient  to  procure.  Upon  measuring 
blocks  supplied  by  timber  merchants,  it  will  frequently  be  found  that  the 
depth  is  a  trifle  short  of  the  specified  dimensions  ;  for  instance,  a  6-inch 
block  seldom  exceeds  sf  inch,  it  being  understood  to  be  the  custom  of  the 
trade  to  make  an  allowance  for  the  thickness  of  the  saw-cut.  The  question 
has  often  been  raised  whether  7-inch  blocks  on  the  one  hand  or  5-inch  on  the 
other,  would  not  be  more  economical  than  6-inch  ;  and  although  there  is  very 
little  experience  thereon,  the  subject  will  be  alluded  to  under  the  heading  of 
durability. 

Laying,  'Jointing,  and  Completion. — Great  diversity  of  practice  has 
existed  in  the  mode  of  laying  and  jointing,  and  a  great  deal  of  money  has 
been  lost  in  the  acquisition  of  patented  inventions.  Under  some  of  the 
latter  systems  the  blocks  were  laid  on  boards  upon  a  foundation  of  sand,  in 
others  the  blocks  were  laid  upon  a  layer  of  asphalt,  or  upon  tarred  felt 
placed  upon  a  concrete  foundation.  Blocks  have  been  laid  in  transverse 
courses,  and  under  Lloyd's  "  keyed  "  system,  diagonally.  Various  modes 
of  jointing  have  been  adopted,  technically  known  as  mastic,  semi-mastic, 
cement,  lime,  or  felt,  the  latter  being  a  close  joint,  whilst  the  former  varied 
from  \  inch  to  i  inch  in  width. 

In  the  Chelsea  pavements  the  dimensions  of  the  blocks  were  3  inches 
by  9  inches  by  6  inches,  40.5  being  required  for  each  square  yard,  and  they 
were  laid  upon  the  concrete  in  their  natural  state,  with  the  fibres  vertical, 
and  with  intervening  spaces  f-inch  wide,  which  were  filled  with  cement 
grout.  The  surface  of  the  concrete  having  become  hard  and  smooth,  the 
method  of  operating  consisted  in  laying  two  longitudinal  courses  of  blocks 
next  to  the  curb  to  form  the  channels,  and  filling  in  with  straight  courses 
transversely,  the  ends  of  the  blocks  being  in  contact.  At  the  intersections 
of  streets  the  courses  were  laid  V-shape,  so  as  to  insure  the  traffic  passing 
over  the  blocks  at  an  angle  of  90°,  or  as  nearly  as  possible  thereto  (Fig.  2). 
In  laying  the  blocks  the  joint  was  kept  parallel  by  means  of  three  cast-iron 


30  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

studs  fixed  in  each  block  (Figs.  3  and  4),  which  materially  assisted  in  keep- 
ing the  pavement  firm  and  steady  until  the  grouting  had  thoroughly  set. 
By  the  use  of  studs  instead  of  wooden  strips  or  laths,  it  is  certain  that  the 
blocks  are  much  less  liable  to  become  displaced  while  the  work  is  setting, 
and  in  practice  a  uniform  width  of  joint  is  more  easily  secured. 

The  grout  was  composed  of  three  parts  of  Thames  sand  to  one  part  of 
Portland  cement,  the  materials  being  measured  in  boxes  and  mixed  to  a 
proper  consistency,  in  a  large  movable  grout-truck.  The  grout  having  been 
swept  out  of  the  truck  on  to  the  surface  of  the  wood,  was  swept  backwards 
and  forwards  until  every  joint  was  properly  filled.  The  prime  cost  of  this 
work,  labor  and  materials,  amounted  to  5^.  per  square  yard. 

Top-dressing. — Before  permitting  vehicular  traffic  to  pass  over  new 
work,  it  is  desirable  to  "top-dress"  the  surface  of  the  wood  with  a  fine 
gritty  material.  This  is  usually  done  by  spreading  a  thin  coating  of  very 
small  stones,  as  screened  from  Thames  ballast,  sand,  or  shingle,  over  the 
entire  surface,  and  leaving  it  to  be  crushed  and  ground  into  the  fibres  of  the 
wood  by  the  traffic,  until  it  has  ceased  to  be  gritty.  The  cost  of  this  work 
for  the  Chelsea  pavements  amounted  to  2.d.  per  square  yard  for  materials 
and  labor.  Whenever  practicable,  all  traffic  should  be  excluded  from  a 
newly -laid  pavement  for  at  least  a  week  after  completion,  but  there  is  an 
obvious  difficulty  in  the  enforcement  of  this  rule,  whenever  a  street  is  too 
narrow  to  allow  the  works  to  be  carried  out  in  half-widths  at  a  time. 

The  expansion  of  wood  is  a  question  demanding  consideration  in  carry- 
ing out  such  works.  In  unprepared  blocks  this  is  specially  necessary,  and 
in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  street  so  is  it  desirable  to  leave  a  space 
next  the  footways,  varying  from  one  to  two  inches  in  width.  The  actual 
condition  of  the  wood  and  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  time  of  laying 
exercise  a  material  influence  on  the  width  of  the  margins  thus  left. 
Another  mode  is  by  omitting  to  grout  the  channels  for  a  week  or  longer 
period  after  the  other  portions  have  been  completed  ;  and  another  by  pav- 
ing nearly  up  to  the  curb,  and  afterwards  taking  out  the  nearest  course  so 
soon  as  expansion  sets  up.  In  any  case,  it  is  necessary  to  temporarily  fill 
up  the  margin  with  sand  or  other  suitable  material,  which  can  be  raked  out 
from  time  to  time  until  expansion  ceases,  which  generally  occurs  in  the 
course  of  twelve  to  eighteen  months  from  completion.  In  the  Chelsea 
works  it  was  then  found  desirable  to  rake  out  the  temporary  filling,  and 
where  any  space  was  left,  to  fill  in  with  cement  grout,  the  surface  being 
carefully  pointed  in  cement.  This  work  effectually  renders  the  channels 
impervious  to  water,  and  tends  to  prevent  premature  decay,  and  was 
executed  at  a  cost  equal  to  o.86</.  per  square  yard  of  pavement. 

It  frequently  happens  that,  notwithstanding  those  provisions,  and 
whether  the  blocks  are  plain  or  dipped,  the  outer  portions  of  the  footways 
become  displaced  during  the  period  of  expansion,  but  subsequent  to  the 
above-named  period  wood  pavement  generally  maintains  a  fairly  constant 
state.  The  author  has  never  observed  any  contraction  in  wood  pavement 
except  during  the  severe  frosts  in  January,  1881,  at  which  time,  when  22° 
of  frost  were  registered,  several  rather  alarming  cracks  in  a  longitudinal 
direction  appeared  in  the  Sloane  Street  pavement,  at  places  where  the  wood 
was  especially  exposed  to  the  severity  of  the  weather.  Immediately  the  frost 
terminated  the  cracks  appeared  to  close  up  naturally,  and  the  pavement 
assumed  its  former  sound  condition. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  31 

Advantages  of  Plain  Blocks. — This  plain  system  of  pavement  was 
laid  in  Sloane  Street  and  King's  Road  in  1879,  and  upon  closely  observing 
the  effect  of  nearly  five  years'  traffic  upon  it,  the  result  is  eminently  satisfac- 
tory. The  plain  type  of  pavement  had  previously  been  adopted  by  Messrs. 
Mowlem  &  Co.  in  several  parts  of  the  metropolis,  with  the  exception  that 
their  joint  was  wider  and  was  formed  of  lime  grout,  and  that  their  form  and 
manner  of  studding  were  different,  and  the  author  ventures  to  assert  that 
it  comprises  all  the  essentials  of  a  sound  pavement ;  a  quiet  and  smooth 
surface  for  vehicles  being  provided,  and  the  pavement  being  sufficiently 
close-jointed  to  insure  a  safe  foot-hold  for  horses.  Experience  proves  that 
the  cement  joint  is  reliable,  that  it  adheres  to  the  blocks,  effectually  resists 
wet,  and  does  not  unduly  wear  down  below  the  surface  of  the  wood,  and 
thereby  allow  dirt  to  accumulate  in  the  joints,  neither  does  it  permit  dis- 
placement of  the  blocks  ;  the  author  therefore  feels  that  he  may  justly  pro- 
nounce it  successful,  and  claim  for  it  another  advantage  as  compared  with 
the  mastic-joint — viz.,  the  absence  of  the  annoyances  which  are  created  by 
asphalt  kettles  in  streets  during  the  execution  of  the  works.  Upon  inspect- 
ing the  numerous  openings  which  have  been  made  for  gas  and  water  ser- 
vices or  drainage- works,  the  actual  condition  of  the  wood  and  foundation 
has  invariably  proved  satisfactory  ;  the  surface  of  the  concrete  is  hard  and 
dry,  the  joints  are  sound,  and  the  blocks  as  a  rule  present  a  fairly  good  sur- 
face, and  are  not  found  to  contain  an  excessive  amount  of  moisture. 

Cost  and  Durability. — The  prime  cost  of  the  pavement  in  King's 
Road  and  Sloane  Street  amounted  to  los.  bd.  per  square  yard,  and  the  only 
repairs  which  have  been  found  necessary  consisted  in  the  removal  of  some 
defective  blocks  during  the  past  twelve  months.  The  blocks  were  originally 
5.87  inches  deep,  whereas  their  present  average  depth  measures  5.22  inches 
in  King's  Road  and  5.60  inches  in  Sloane  Street.  The  probable  life  of  the 
block  may  be  taken  at  seven  years  for  King's  Road  and  eight  years  for 
Sloane  Street.  The  annual  vertical  wear  of  wood  is  equal  to  0.144  inch  in 
King's  Road  and  0.065  inch  in  Sloane  Street,  and  if  reduced  to  a  traffic 
standard  of  750  tons  per  yard  width  daily,  the  following  results  are  obtained 


King's  Road o.  196  inch 

Sloane  Street 0.175    " 

Several  other  systems  of  pavement  were  laid  in  King's  Road  at  the 
same  time  for  the  purpose  of  practically  testing  their  respective  merits. 
In  one  instance  a  layer  of  metallic  lava  asphalt  one-half  inch  in  thickness 
was  laid  upon  the  concrete  foundation,  the  blocks  being  laid  and  jointed  as 
already  described.  Opposite  the  Royal  Military  Asylum  wall  creosoted 
blocks  were  adopted,  one  length  being  formed  with  a  semi-mastic  joint — 
namely,  the  lower  half  bituminous  mastic  and  the  upper  lias  lime  grout — 
the  other  being  entirely  jointed  with  grout  composed  of  lias  lime  and  sand. 
The  section  of  pitch-pine^  blocks  previously  described  was  also  laid  at  this 
part,  the  joint  consisting  of  Portland  cement  grout.  The  author  has  care- 
fully examined  the  various  experimental  sections  of  pavement,  the  cost  of 
which,  together  with  the  ascertained  wear  and  other  particulars,  are  as 
follows — viz. : 

(a)  Plain  Deal  Blocks  on  Layer  of  Asphalt. — The  cost  amounted  to 
I2S.  $d.  per  square  yard  ;  the  present  depth  of  the  blocks  is  5^  inches  ;  the 


32  WOOD     PAVEMENTS. 

foundation  is  in  a  perfect  condition  and  the  blocks  are  fairly  good.  The  esti- 
mated life  of  the  pavement  is  seven  years,  the  avarage  annual  wear  being 
0.139  inch. 

(d)  Creosoted  Blocks,  with  Mastic  Joint, — The  cost  was  14^.  zd.  per 
square  yard,  the  present  depth  of  the  blocks  is  5^  inches,  and  the  founda- 
tion is  perfectly  sound.  The  lime  grout  part  of  the  joint  has  perished  and 
almost  crumbled  away,  consequently  a  good  deal  of  dirt  has  been  pressed 
into  the  part  above  the  bituminous  portion,  and  the  blocks  came  up  very 
easily.  The  pavement  may  last  for  eight  years,  the  average  annual  wear 
being  0.139  inch. 

(c)  Creosoted  Blocks,  Lime  'Joint. — The  cost  was  us.  ivd.  per  square 
yard  ;  the  blocks  are  5^  inches  deep,  and  in  a  fairly  good  condition.  The 
failure  of  the  lime  joint  may  possibly  arise  from  a  chemical  action  of  the 
creosote  ;  but  it  certainly  has  perished,  and  causes  dirt  to  accumulate.  The 
blocks  will  probably  last  eight  years,  the  average  annual  wear  being  o.iu 
inch. 

(d}  Pitch-pine  Blocks. — This  section  costs  us.  8d.  per  yard,  and  the 
present  depth  of  the  blocks  is  5^  inches.  The  foundation  is  dry  and  sound, 
and  the  cement-joint  perfectly  satisfactory.  The  repairs  to  the  blocks  have 
been  very  slight,  and  they  will  probably  last  eight  or  nine  years,  the  average 
annual  wear  being  0.055  inch  only. 

If  reduced  to  a  traffic  standard  of  750  tons  per  yard  width  per  day,  the 
figures  are  :  Pavement  (a)  0.209  inch  ;  (ft)  0.240  inch  ;  (c)  0.204  inch  ;  (d} 
0.088  inch. 

Practically,  the  plain  pitch-pine  pavement  is  cheaper  than  yellow  deal, 
and  the  ascertained  vertical  wear  promises  admirable  results  ;  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  either  of  the  other  modes  is  attended  with  any  particular 
advantage. 

Other  Pavements. — In  1876,  the  Improved  Wood  Pavement  Company 
laid  a  short  section  in  King's  Road,  near  the  Vestry  Hall,  in  which  planks 
were  laid  upon  the  concrete  foundation,  and  "  dipped"  pitch-pine  blocks 
were  used  ;  but  in  consequence  of  numerous  complaints  of  the  disagreeable 
rumbling  and  jarring  noise  which  the  rapid  passage  of  vehicles  over  it 
caused,  it  was  taken  up  and  relaid  without  the  boards  after  a  period  of 
seventeen  months,  an  additional  length  being  at  the  same  time  laid  with 
"dipped "deal  blocks.  These  pavements  were  subsequently  particularly 
unfortunate,  inasmuch  as  the  "  mastic  "  joint  caused  the  surface  to  become 
uneven  and  bumpy,  and  rendered  it  necessary  to  execute  frequent  repairs, 
a  considerable  portion  being  relaid  in  1882.  Upon  examination  it  transpired 
that  the  substance  which  formed  the  "  mastic"  joint  had  partially  melted, 
presumably  from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  that  the  material  had  got  under- 
neath the  blocks  and  forced  them  upwards.  In  November,  1883,  the  pitch- 
pine  section  was  finally  taken  up,  and  the  other  portions  were  again  repaired 
by  the  company  for  the  same  cause.  Like  results  may  be  seen  in  other 
districts  where  a  similar  joint  has  been  adopted. 

The  ascertained  average  depth  of  the  pitch-pine  blocks  at  the  time 
of  removal  was  5^  inches,  the  average  annual  wear  during  a  period 
of  seven  years  being  0.089  inch,  or  if  reduced  to  the  traffic  standard, 
0.119  inch.  The  deal  blocks  were  measured  and  found  to  be  5  inches 
deep,  the  ascertained  annual  wear  being  0.157  inch,  and  according 
to  the  traffic  standard  o.  195  inch.  With  additional  repairs  the  latter  may 
last  another  year,  making  their  life  sevsn  years.  The  author  further  objects 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  33 

to  this  form  of  joint,  because  thejmelted  asphalt  adheres  so  tightly  to  the 
surface  of  the  concrete  that  it  is  necessary  to  chip  it  off  before  new  blocks 
can  be  laid,  which  process  destroys  the  smooth  surface  of  the  concrete  so 
considerably  that  it  necessitates  a  bedding  of  sand  before  new  blocks  can 
be  properly  laid.  Further,  the  bitumen  adheres  so  tightly  to  the  blocks 
that  to  well  cleanse  them  for  reuse  not  only  involves  much  labor  but  is 
injurious  to  them,  especially  if  they  have  borne  two  or  three  years'  traffic 
and  the  fibres  have  begun  to  spread.  In  the  latter  case  they  are  not  only 
unsound,  but  are  also  unfit  to  make  neat  or  satisfactory  work. 

The  improved  Wood  Pavement  Company,  whose  experience  is  probably 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  company,  have  laid  their  system  in  many 
of  the  leading  streets,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  King  William 
Street,  Bishopsgate  Street,  Queen  Victoria  Street,  Whitehall,  Bond  Street, 
Park  Lane,  and  Old  Brompton  Road.  In  all  instances  where  the  patented 
system  had  originally  been  adopted,  advantage  was  taken  to  modify  and 
simplify  it  whenever  it  became  necessary  to  renew  the  blocks.  The 
company  have  entirely  discontinued  to  lay  a  plank  in  the  foundation,  and 
now  limit  their  system  to  the  use  of  "  dipped"  blocks,  laid  with  a  semi- 
mastic  joint  upon  a  concrete  foundation.  For  the  purpose  of  comparison, 
the  weight  of  the  traffic  being  known,  the  following  streets  are  referred  to  : 

Ludgate  Hill. — Originally  laid  on  boards  in  November,  1873,  at  a  cost 
of  i8s.  per  square  yard.  The  terms  of  maintenance  are,  one  year  free,  and 
fifteen  years  is.  6d.  per  square  yard  per  annum.  The  blocks  and  plank 
foundation  were  taken  up  and  new  blocks  laid  on  a  concrete  foundation  and 
single  board  in  1877.  The  pavement  was  again  taken  up  and  laid  with  new 
blocks  on  the  new  principle — namely,  without  the  intervening  boards — in 
February,  1884,  when  the  blocks  were  found  to  average  3  inches  deep,  their 
actual  life  being  seven  years.  The  author  saw  this  pavement  taken  up,  and 
was  surprised  to  find  how  easily  it  was  removed ;  the  mastic  joint  had 
evidently  lost  its  strength,  and  the  result  possibly  points  to  the  fact  that  its 
efficient  durability  does  not  extend  beyond  a  limited  period.  The  annual 
average  wear  of  the  last-mentioned  wood  was  0.428  inch,  and  if  reduced  to. 
the  traffic  standard  it  was  equal  to  0.259  inch. 

Aldersgate  Street. — Cost  15^.  per  square  yard  in  September,  1874  ; 
the  maintenance  terms  being  two  years  free,  and  fifteen  years  at  is.  per 
square  yard  per  annum.  It  was  taken  up  and  re-laid  on  a  concrete  founda- 
tion in  1877,  the  blocks  being  merely  reversed,  and  laid  on  lias  lime  mortar. 
In,  March,  1884,  the  blocks  were  renewed,  the  average  depth  then  being  3^ 
inches  ;  but  in  some  parts  the  wood  was  only  2  inches  thick.  The  annual 
wear  was  equal  to  0.264  inch,  and  the  actual  life  of  many  of  the  blocks  was 
no  less  than  nine  and  a  half  years.  The  blocks  recently  laid  are  5  inches  deep. 

Northumberland  Avenue. — Paved  in  February,  1876,  at  a  cost  of  i$s. 
per  square  yard,  exclusive  of  the  concrete  foundation,  which  had  been  laid 
by  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works.  It  is  maintained  by  the  company  at 
a  rate  of  ijs.  per  square  yard  for  fifteen  years.  Baltic  pine  blocks,  6  inches 
deep,  were  laid  on  planks,  and  the  approximate  wear  is  0.125  inch  per 
annum.  The  surface  is  uneven,  and  shows  considerable  wear  at  the  upper 
end,  but  its  life  will  probably  be  nine  years. 

Leadenhall  Street. — In  July,  1876,  the  western  end  was  paved  at  a 
cost  of  i2s.  ^d.  per  square  yard,  with  two  years'  free  maintenance,  and 
fifteen  years  at  is.  per  square  yard  per  annum.  The  pavement  was  taken 
up,  and  s-inch  blocks  laid  in  1879,  without  the  planks.  The  wood  is  con- 


34  WOOD     PAVEMENTS. 

siderably  worn,  and  the  surface  is  bumpy,  probably  from  the  mastic  joint. 
The  approximate  wear  of  the  wood  is  0.200  inch  per  annum,  which,  reduced 
to  the  traffic  standard,  is  equal  to  0.186  inch  per  annum. 

Piccadilly. — An  area  of  over  16,000  square  yards  was  laid  in  April, 
1876.  In  1880  nearly  two-thirds  were  renewed,  and  the  boards  taken  out, 
.the  remainder  done  in  February,  1882.  Further  repairs  have  been  exe- 
cuted, and  the  surface  shows  considerable  signs  of  wear.  The  author  has 
been  unable  to  obtain  information  as  to  the  depth  of  blocks, 

Knightsbridge. — The  portion  east  of  Albert  Gate  was  paved  in  April, 
jSyS,  the  blocks  being  laid  upon  a  single  plank,  and  concrete  foundation. 
The  part  west  of  Wilton  Crescent  was  taken  up  in  September,  1883,  when 
the  plank  was  removed,  consequently  the  actual  life  of  the  wood  was  nearly 
five  and  a  half  years.  The  daily  traffic  is  about  780  tons  per  yard  width, 
or  250,000  tons  per  annum. 

Parliament  Street  was  paved  in  December,  1880,  at  a  cost  of  13^.  8</. 
per  square  yard,  and  the  company  maintained  it  for  three  years  at  an 
additional  charge  of  \d.  per  square  yard  per  annum.  The  foundation  is 
Portland  cement  concrete,  12  inches  thick.  The  annual  wear  of  the  wood 
is  0.154  inch,  and  if  reduced  to  the  standard  is  equal  to  0.104  inch. 

Oxford  Street,  opposite  Hereford  Gardens,  was  originally  laid  on 
-boards  in  November,  1874,  at  a  cost  of  i6s.  per  square  yard,  with  main- 
tenance two  years  free  and  thirteen  years  is.  per  square  yard  per  annum. 
In  May,  1877,  the  boards  were  removed  and  new  blocks  laid,  but  they  are 
now  in  a  very  bad  condition,  and  are  about  to  be  taken  up.  Their  life  will 
have  been  seven  years. 

Hensen's  patent  pavement  has  been  practically  tested,  having  been  laid 
in  Fleet  Street,  Oxford  Street,  Brompton  Road,  Euston  Road,  Uxbridge 
Road,  and  elsewhere.  The  theoretical  principles  of  this  system,  which  con- 
sists of  a  cement-concrete  foundation,  plain  deal  blocks  on  a  felt  bed,  a  close 
felt  joint,  and  a  dressing  or  grouting  of  boiling  or  prepared  tar,  and  the 
merits  of  the  felt  bed  and  joint  were  fully  described  in  Mr.  Howarth's 
paper,  and  the  following  particulars  of  ascertained  wear  may  be  useful  in 
considering  its  merits. 

Oxford  Street,  Princess  Street  to  Marylebone  Lane,  was  laid  in  Novem- 
ber, 1875,  at  a  cost  of  i6s.  6d.  per  square  yard  on  existing  concrete.  The 
company  offered  to  maintain  it  for  fifteen  years  for  IDS.  per  square  yard, 
but  the  Marylebone  Vestry  arranged  to  do  this  work  by  their  own  staff. 
The  pavement  was  repaired  in  1879  and  following  years,  the  blocks  being 
•entirely  renewed  in  September,  1883.  Yellow  deal  blocks,  5  inches  deep, 
were  originally  laid,  and  when  taken  up  averaged  5^  inches  thick,  their 
actual  life  being  7.84  years.  The  annual  average  wear  of  wood  was  there- 
fore 0.191  inch,  which,  if  reduced  to  .the  traffic  standard  already  described, 
;giveso.i2o  inch. 

Oxford  Street,  Duke  Street  to  Portland  Street,  was  paved  in  October, 
1876,  at  a  cost  of  14^.  per  square  yard  on  existing  concrete,  the  maintenance 
terms  offered  being  los.  per  square  yard  for  a  period  of  twelve  years.  Six- 
inch  blocks  were  laid,  and  they  were  repaired  in  1880,  1881,  1882,  and  1883, 
their  present  average  depth  being  3.60  inches.  The  surface  of  the  wood  is 
considerably  worn,  but  upon  recently  inspecting  an  opening  in  the  pave- 
ment the  foundation  and  joints  were  in  excellent  condition.  The  probable 
life  of  the  blocks  is  eight  years.  The  average  annual  wear  of  the  wood 
is  equal  to  0.323  inch,  and  as  reduced  to  the  traffic  standard  0.255  inch. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  35 

Oxford  Street,  Hereford  Gardens  to  Edgeware  Road,  was  paved  in 
December,  1875,  at  a  cost  of  165.  6^.  per  square  yard  on  existing  concrete. 
The  blocks  were  repaired  each  year  from  1879  to  July,  1883,  when  they  were 
renewed.  They  were  originally  6  inches  deep,  were  worn  to  an  average 
depth  of  3^  inches,  and  had  a  life  of  7.58  years.  The  probable  life  of  the 
existing  blocks  is  eight  years.  The  annual  average  wear  of  the  former 
wood  was  0.329  inch,  and  as  reduced  to  the  traffic  standard  was  equal  to 
0.250  inch. 

Brompton  Road. — The  eastern  half  was  paved  in  December,  1878,  at 
a  cost  of  125.  qd.  per  square  yard,  with  a  free  guarantee  of  three  years. 
Since  then  frequent  repairs  have  been  executed  by  the  Kensington  Vestry. 
Six -inch  blocks  were  laid,  the  present  average  depth  of  which  is  4.94  inches. 
The  surface  is  worn  in  places,  and  is  bumpy  and  somewhat  unpleasant  to 
drive  over.  It  is  very  dirty  at  the  joints.  The  probable  life  of  the  wood 
is  six  and  a  half  years,  the  average  annual  wear  being  0.184  inch,  or  accord- 
ing to  the  traffic  standard  0.236  inch. 

Fleet  Street. — The  western  half  was  laid  in  September,  1877,  at  a  cost 
of  i6s.  per  square  yard,  the  maintenance  charge  being  ijs.  per  square  yard 
for  nineteen  years.  It  has  been  repaired  from  time  to  time  since  1881,  and 
is  now  considerably  worn  and  uneven.  The  probable  life  of  wood  is  seven 
years.  The  average  annual  wear  of  the  wood  is  0.269  inch,  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  traffic  standard,  is  equal  to  0.173  inch. 

Leadenhall  Street. — In  August,  1876,  the  eastern  half  was  paved  at 
i8s.  6d.  per  square  yard,  the  maintenance  being  two  years  free  and  seven- 
teen years  at  is.  6d.  per  square  yard  per  annum.  The  paving  has  been 
repaired  on  several  occasions  since  1880,  and  parts  are  now  in  a  very  bad 
condition,  the  wood  having  quite  worn  through  in  places.  The  paving  is 
to  be  renewed  this  spring,  after  a  duration  of  seven  and  a  half  years  ;  andr 
taking  the  average  depth  of  the  block  at  4  inches,  the  annual  wear  is  equal 
to  0.264  inch,  which,  reduced  to  the  traffic  standard  is  0.198  inch. 

Euston  Road,  Cleveland  Street  to  Gower  Street,  was  paved  in  Novem- 
ber, 1880,  at  a  cost  of  us.  bd.  per  square  yard,  with  three  years'  free  and 
twelve  years'  annual  maintenance  at  Sd.  per  square  yard.  The  pavement 
is  in  fairly  good  condition,  only  trifling  repairs  having  been  carried  out, 
notwithstanding  that  the  weight  of  the  traffic  per  yard  width  is  equal  to 
700  tons  per  day. 

It  must  be  apparent  to  any  one  who  has  carefully  noticed  Henson's  pave- 
ment that  there  is  a  minimum  of  jarring,  and  consequently  a  very  steady 
motion  in  driving  over  it  when  it  is  in  good  condition  ;  yet  experience  seems 
to  prove  that  after  a  few  years'  wear  it  is  not  in  reality  cleaner  or  less  dusty 
than  a  plain  close-jointed  pavement,  and  a  reference  to  Table  V,  in  the 
Appendix  clearly  shows  that  in  durability  it  does  not  take  the  highest 
place. 

The  system  adopted  by  the  Asphaltic  Wood  Pavement  Company  con- 
sists in  laying  a  £-inch  layer  of  asphalt  upon  the  concrete  foundation,  upon 
which  "  dipped  "  blocks  were  placed,  the  lower  part  of  the  joint  being  of 
asphalt  and  the  upper  of  Portland  cement  grout.  This  pavement  has  been 
laid  in  Fleet  Street  and  other  parts  of  the  city,  the  Strand,  Oxford  Street, 
High  Holborn,  Hatton  Garden,  Brompton  Road  and  elsewhere. 

Oxford  Street,  Marylebone  Lane  to  Duke  Street,  was  laid  in  Septem- 
ber, 1876,  upon  an  existing  concrete  foundation,  at  a  cost  of  ijs.  bd.  per 
square  yard,  and  offered  to  be  maintained  for  fifteen  years  at  12^.  per  square 


36  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

yard.  It  was  repaired  in  1878,  and  each  successive  year  to  November,  1882, 
when  the  blocks  were  removed,  and  the  pavement  relaid  upon  the  plain 
system  with  a  cement  joint.  The  blocks  originally  were  6  inches  deep,  and 
when  removed  had  worn  down  to  about  3  inches,  their  actual  life  being 
about  6. 20  years.  The  average  annual  wear  of  wood  was  0.484  inch,  which, 
reduced  to  the  traffic  standard,  is  equal  to  0.319  inch.  The  pavement  sud- 
denly broke  up  and  went  to  pieces  at  the  end  of  1882,  owing,  it  is  stated  to 
water  getting  underneath,  and  the  asphalt  breaking  up,  which  was  probably 
caused  by  the  "  open  joint "  of  asphalt  and  lime  grout. 

The  Strand  was  paved  in  February,  1877,  the  cost  being  133.  bd.  per 
square  yard,  and  maintenance  undertaken  at  is.  per  square  yard  for  twelve 
years.  Six-inch  Baltic  red  blocks  were  used,  and  the  pavement  lasted  until 

1882,  when  it  was  renewed.     The  actual  life  of  the  wood  was  a  little  over 
five  years,  but  it  should  be  observed  that  the  daily  traffic  is  upwards  of 
1,100  tons  per  yard  width. 

Fleet  Street. — The  eastern  portion  was  paved  in  July,  1877,  the  cost 
being  15^.  per  square  yard.  Considerable  repairs  have  been  carried  out,  but 
it  is  much  worn,  more  so  than  Henson's  pavement,  and  is  somewhat  bumpy 
to  drive  over  ;  this  may,  perhaps,  be  partly  accounted  for  by  the  gradient 
being  sharp.  The  average  annual  wear  of  the  wood  is  0.456  inch,  which, 
reduced  to  the  traffic  standard,  is  0.251  inch. 

Regent  Street. — The  portion  between  Piccadilly  Circus  and  Vigo 
Street  was  paved  in  September,  1880,  at  a  cost  of  I2S.  6d.  per  square  yard, 
on  a  cement  concrete  foundation,  12  inches  thick,  formed  of  2  parts  of  old 
macadam  to  i  part  of  ballast.  Six-inch  deal  blocks  were  laid,  but  they 
already  show  considerable  signs  of  wear ;  in  fact,  they  needed  repair  in 

1883.  The  ascertained  annual  wear  is  0.286  inch,  which,  reduced  to  the 
traffic  standard,  is  equal  to  0.384  inch. 

Brompton  Road. — The  eastern  part  was  paved  in  December,  1878,  at  a 
cost  of  i3.y.  qd.  per  square  yard.  The  blocks  have  been  repaired  on  several 
occasions  ;  the  surface  is  in  a  more  uneven  condition  than  Henson's  pave- 
ment, and  the  joints  are  much  worn.  The  life  of  the  blocks  may  be  put 
at  six  and  a  half  years.  The  ascertained  annual  wear  is  0.373  inch,  which, 
reduced  to  the  traffic  standard,  is  equal  to  0.431  inch. 

The  author  fails  to  observe  that  the  asphalt  bed  and  joint  passes  the 
merit  claimed  for  them,  and  certainly  the  pavement  in  Brompton  Road,  the 
surface  of  which  became  irregular  at  least  two  years  ago,  is  in  an  extremely 
unsatisfactory  state,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  failure  of  the  joint  and  quality 
of  the  wood. 

Lloyd's  Patent  "  Keyed  "  Pavement. — This  was  laid  in  Pall  Mall  in 
February,  1879,  and,  from  the  deplorable  condition  into  which  it  had  fallen 
in  December,  1883,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  has  proved  an  utter 
failure.  Unquestionably  the  work  was  carelessly  executed,  as  the  author 
found  blocks  varying  in  length  from  8  inches  to  15  inches,  and  joints  from 
i  inch  to  2  inches  in  width  ;  and  when  it  is  considered  that  the  blocks  were 
laid  diagonally,  although  the  wood  used  was  pitch-pine,  it  is  not  unreason- 
able to  attribtite  the  failure  to  the  mode  of  jointing  and  diagonal  form  of 
blocking.  The  specimen  blocks  submitted  were  taken  up  in  December, 
1883,  and  they  reveal  the  fact  that  the  so-called  "key  "  was  no  key  what- 
ever, it  having  entirely  failed  to  hold  the  blocks  together  ;  and  considering 
the  irregularity  of  the  width  of  the  joint  and  the  poorness  of  the  material  with 
which  it  was  formed,  together  with  the  uneven  bedding  of  the  blocks,  it 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  37 

will  be  readily  understood  that  the  joints  soon  wore  down,  and  that  the 
blocks  became  rounded,  thereby  rendering  the  pavement  uneven  and  more 
bumby  to  drive  over  than  any  other  modern  system.  The  pavement  origi- 
nally cost  8s.  5</.  per  square  yard  only,  being  laid  on  an  existing  concrete 
foundation.  When  the  blocks  were  removed  they  were  about  4f  inches 
deep,  but  being  so  much  rounded  and  unevenly  worn,  it  was  found 
that  they  could  not  be  turned  and  relaid  ;  consequently  deal  blocks  upon 
the  plain  system  were  substituted.  The  life  of  a  large  area  of  the  pitch- 
pine  "keyed"  blocks  was,  therefore,  less  than  five  years — an  extremely 
unsatisfactory  result,  especially  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  carriage- 
way is  extremely  wide. 

The  same  system  of  pavement  was  laid  in  the  upper  part  of  Regent 
Street  in  September,  1880,  at  a  cost  of  13^.  gd.  per  square  yard.  It  was 
repaired  in  1883,  and  again  this  year  ;  it  already  shows  considerable  wear 
and  is  uneven  in  places.  The  blocks  are  of  pitch-pine,  6  inches  deep,  and 
the  ascertained  annual  wear  is  0.214  inch,  which,  reduced  to  the  traffic 
standard,  is  equal  to  0.288  inch. 

Carey's  System. — The  pavement  known  as  Carey's  system  was  laid  in 
Canon  Street  in  September,  1874,  at  a  cost  of  13^.  6d.  per  square  yard,  the 
maintenance  terms  being  two  years  free  and  fifteen  years  at  is.  6d.  per 
square  yard  per  annum.  The  blocks  originally  laid  were  4  inches  wide  by 
9  inches  by  6  inches,  and  were  shaped  with  alternate  convex  and  concave 
ends,  and  laid  on  a  thin  bed  of  ballast,  the  joints  being  formed  of  lime 
grout.  Considerable  repairs  and  renewals  have  been  carried  out  from  time 
to  time,  and  in  March,  1884,  the  author  saw  several  trenches  opened  near 
Queen  Street,  at  which  places  the  original  blocks  had  worn  to  a  depth  of  3 
inches,  the  surface  being  extremely  uneven,  not  to  say  bad.  The  western 
section,  which  was  renewed  about  a  year  ago,  is  already  uneven,  and  begins 
to  show  signs  of  wear,  and  notwithstanding  that  the  wood  has  considerable 
durability,  yet,  owing  to  the  inferior  surface  of  the  pavement,  the  author 
would  hesitate  to  class  it  among  successful  pavements. 

The  Ligno-mineral  Pavement  was  laid  throughout  Coleman  Street, 
City,  in  June,  1865,  at  a  cost  of  135.  (yd.  per  square  yard.  The  paving  consisted 
of  mineralized  pitch-pine  blocks,  4  inches  deep,  with  a  "  mastic  "  joint,  the  top 
portion  being  lime  grout.  The  pavement  having  become  worn  out,  owing  to 
open  joints  and  decayed  wood,  it  was  taken  up  in  April,  1882,  when  asphalt 
was  substituted.  It  is  extremely  probable  that  in  consequence  of  the 
carriageway  being  so  much  in  the  shade,  the  wood  was  specially  liable  to 
retain  moisture.  Fore  Street  was  similarly  paved  in  December,  1874,  but 
the  wood  was  replaced  with  asphalt  in  July,  1883. 

Messrs.  Moivlem  &*>  Co.'s  Pavement. — This  plain  system  of  paving 
has  been  laid  in  various  parts  of  the  metropolis,  particularly  in  the  city,  St. 
Giles,  St.  Marylebone,  St.  Pancras,  and  Kensington.  In  Princess  Street, 
Cavendish  Square,  blocks  which  were  laid  in  September,  1874,  are  still  in 
existence. 

Kensington  High  Street. — In  May,  1877,  a  section  was  laid  near  the 
Vestry  Hall,  at  a  cost  of  14^.  per  square  yard,  with  a  three  years'  free  main-  • 
tenance.  Six-inch  blocks  were  laid  in  their  natural  state  with  a  ^-inch 
joint  of  lime  grout.  The  present  depth  of  the  blocks  is  stated  to  be  3  inches, 
the  annual  average  wear  therefore  being  0.440  inch.  The  surface  shows 
considerable  wear,  and  after  rain  water  is  retained  at  those  points  where  it 
has  worn  below  the  channel-level.  The  latter  evil  is  possibly  to  be  attributed 


38  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

to  the  very  slight  rounding,  one  inch  in  four  feet,  to  which  it  was  laid.  The 
blocks  are  to  be  renewed  in  October  next,  when  the  life  of  the  wood  will 
have  been  seven  and  a  half  years. 

Fulham  Road,  Sydney  Street  to  Arthur  Street. — This  section  was 
paved  in  July,  1878,  at  a  cost  of  145.  per  square  yard,  and  in  other  respects 
was  similar  to  the  last-mentioned  pavement.  The  surface  is  considerably 
worn,  and  the  form  of  joint  not  only  retains  dirt  but  tends  to  round  the 
blocks,  the  average  depth  of  which  is  4f  inches,  or  equal  to  an  annual  average 
wear  of  wood  of  0.242  inch.  The  pavement  will  probably  be  relaid  in  1885, 
when  its  life  will  have  been  seven  years. 

A  large  area  of  "  plain  "  wood  pavement  has  been  laid  in  Kensington 
by  Messrs.  Nowell  &  Robson,  who  paved  Kensington  Road,  Fulham  Road, 
Uxbridge  Road,  and  High  Street,  Notting  Hill.  The  last-mentioned  street 
was  carried  out  in  December,  1878,  at  a  cost  of  i2s.  bd.  per  square  yard, 
with  a  three  years  free  maintenance.  The  lime-joint  gave  much  trouble 
shortly  after  the  work  was  completed,  and  in  places  it  may  be  observed  that 
it  has  allowed  dirt  to  accumulate.  The  average  wear  is  equal  to  0.218  inch 
per  annum. 

In  other  metropolitan  districts  besides  Chelsea  the  local  authorities  have 
successfully  laid  a  plain  system  of  wood  pavement  by  means  of  their  own 
staff  of  workmen,  particularly  in  St.  Marylebone  and  Paddington.  The  credit 
of  introducing  this  method  is  due  to  the  St.  Marylebone  Vestry,  whose  first 
work  consisted  in  paving  the  portion  of  Oxford  Street  east  of  Regent  Circus, 
in  October,  1878.  The  blocks  were  laid  upon  an  existing  concrete  founda- 
tion, and  the  work  cost  8s.  $\d.  per  square  yard,  exclusive  of  the  removal 
of  the  old  stones.  The  blocks  were  repaired  in  1882,  1883,  and  in  1884,  at 
an  approximate  cost  of  bd.  per  square  yard.  Plain  yellow  deal  blocks,  6 
inches  deep,  were  adopted,  with  a  cement  joint  \  inch  wide,  and  they  have  worn 
to  an  average  depth  of  3.30  inches,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  street  the  thick- 
ness is  i^  inch  only.  The  surface  shows  considerable  wear,  and  is  uneven 
in  places,  the  wood  being  so  remarkably  thin  near  the  rests  that  it  is  a  mere 
crust.  The  probable  life  of  the  wood  is  six  and  a  half  years.  The  average 
annual  wear  is  0.475  inch,  and  if  reduced  to  the  traffic  standard  it  is  equal  to 
0.306  inch.  The  heavy  rate  of  wear  is  probably  owing  to  the  width  of  the 
joint,  the  author  having  taken  up  a  piece  of  grout  £  inch  thick.  This  irregu- 
larity would  have  been  avoided  by  the  use  of  iron  studs  instead  of  tempor- 
ary strips  or  laths.  A  large  area  was  similarly  laid  in  Edgeware  Road  in 
October,  1880,  and  at  the  same  cost.  The  surface  is  good  ;  the  annual 
wear  is  0.198  inch,  and  if  reduced  to  the  traffic  standard  it  amounts  to  0.254 
inch. 

The  Paddington  Vestry  have  laid  125,232  square  yards  in  various  streets. 
Praed  Street  was  paved  in  July,  1879,  with  6-inch  plain  yellow  deal  blocks, 
at  a  cost  of  los.  id.  per  yard,  and  the  surface  is  in  a  fairly  good  state.  At 
the  eastern  end  the  blocks  have  been  repaired  on  several  occasions,  the 
present  depth  of  wood  in  the  centre  part  being  4  to  4|  inches. 

Generally  speaking,  the  plain  system  appears  to  have  given  satisfaction, 
but  the  mode  of  jointing  with  lias-lime  grout,  or  a  wider  joint  than  f-inch, 
cannot  be  recommended.  Upon  inspecting  the  lime-joint  after  a  few  years' 
wear,  it  may  be  ascertained  that  it  wears  below  the  surface,  that  dirt 
accumulates  in  the  joints,  and  that  the  blocks  have  either  become  rounded 
or  the  top  edges  "  burred,"  to  such  an  extent  that  the  surface  has  become 
bumpy.  The  lime-joint  gave  trouble  when  newly  laid  in  Notting  Hill  in 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 


39 


December,  1878,  as  after  a  sharp  frost  the  grout,  so  to  speak,  "  spewed  "  up, 
the  rain  filled  the  joint,  and  considerable  sections  of  the  pavement  were 
literally  afloat  until  the  defects  were  remedied.  A  system  of  blocking,  which 
the  author  considers  objectionable,  is  that  by  which  the  blocks  of  a  new 
pavement  are  laid  upon  fresh  unset  cement  floating,  and,  as  the  grouting  is 
proceeded  with,  the  blocks  rammed  with  a  "pavior's"  rammer,  so  as  to 
obtain  a  smooth  surface.  Under  this  process  there  is  a  probability  of  the 
blocks  being  injured  or  split,  apart  from  which  it  is  found  that  when  the 
time  arrives  for  renewing  the  wood,  the  surface  of  the  concrete  contains  a 
series  of  indentations  instead  of  being  smooth  and  even.  The  difficulty  may 
of  course  be  surmounted  by  chipping  off  the  projecting  parts  and  refloating 
the  surface,  but  the  repaving  cannot  be  so  expeditiously  or  economically 
carried  out.  The  result  of  the  author's  experience  and  investigation  induces 
him  to  submit  (i)  that.the  surface  of  the  concrete  foundation  should  be  per- 
fectly smooth  and  fully  set  before  the  blocking  is  proceeded  with,  and  (2) 
that  a  carefully-made  cement-joint  f-inch  wide  will  not  only  be  found  sim- 
ple and  water-tight,  but  will  prove  as  durable  as  the  wood  itself. 

Cost. — With  the  exception  of  a  small  area,  the  whole  of  the  wood  pave- 
ment in  Chelsea,  about  50,000  square  yards,  has  been  laid  by  the  Board's 
own  staff.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  pavements  in  King's  Road  and  Sloane 
Street  was  us.  ^d.  per  square  yard,*  but,  as  previously  stated,  the  actual 
cost  amounted  to  los.  6d.  per  square  yard,  exclusive  of  ^120  spent  in  the 
before-mentioned  experiments.  The  pavement  in  Fulham  Road  cost  los.  ^d. 
per  square  yard,  the  difference  being  partially  attributable  to  the  fact  that  a 
portion  of  the  old  broken  granite  was  used  in  the  concrete  foundation  in 
lieu  of  ballast. 

The  details  of  the  cost  per  square  yard,  are  as  follows,  viz.: 


ITEM. 

3*1333  Yds-  in  Sloane 
Street  and  King's 
Road  in  1879. 

'QjSTS  yards  in 
Fulham  Road 
in  1881. 

Labor  in  breaking  up  macadam  surface  and 
excavating 

d. 

II    OO 

d. 

II    OO 

Cartage  of  old  materials,  including  shoot 

9.04 

Q    80 

Portland  cement  for  concrete  and  grout  
Thames  ballast  and  sand  for  concrete,  grout, 
and  top  dressing      .  .                 

20.02 
8.56 

I    .17 
5   80 

Blocks  

58.66 

60.82 

Studs  

1.58 

1.48 

Labor  in  bottoming  up  and  leveling,  pre- 
paring and  laying  concrete,  fixing  stud  in, 
wheeling  and  laying  blocks,  grouting,  top 
dressing,  watching  and  sundries 

I  -I     ACi 

14.    12 

Labor  and  materials  in  permanently  filling 
in  margins  

o  86 

o  90 

Sundries  —  plant,     tools,    superintendence, 
testing  cement,  oil,  repairs,  etc       

2   Q2 

i  8s 

Total 

126   OQ 

122    Q4. 

NOTE — No  allowance  is  made  for  value  of  the  paving  stones  and  broken 
granite  taken  up  and  re-used  in  other  parts  of  the  district,  the  minimum 
value  of  which  amounted  to  ,£2,050,  or  about  is.  per  square  yard. 


Minutes  of  Proceedings  Inst.  C.  E.,  vol.  Iviii,  p.  75. 


40  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

The  variation  in  the  prices  paid  for  wood  pavement  in  various  parts  of 
the  metropolis  has  been  somewhat  remarkable,  the  maximum  cost  per 
square  yard  for  laying  a  pavement  and  concrete  foundation  with  entirely 
new  materials  having  amounted  to  iSs.  6d.,  and  the  minimum  to  10^.  bd, 
Owing  presumably  to  competition  and  to  the  experience  which  has  been 
gained,  together  with  increased  facilities,  the  cost  has  gradually  been 
reduced  to  reasonable  limits,  as  compared  with  the  charges  made  eight  or 
nine  years  since. 

Maintenance. — However  excellently  a  street  carriageway  pavement 
may  have  been  constructed,  its  condition  will  soon  become  unsatisfactory 
unless  its  maintenance  receives  proper  supervision.  Good  management 
implies  not  only  that  repairs  shall  be  promptly  and  efficiently  executed,  but 
that  the  services  of  cleansing,  watering,  and  sanding  must  be  properly 
carried  out ;  in  short,  the  essentials  of  proper  management  are  to  be  found 
in  the  judicious  application  of  the  scraper  and  broom,  of  water,  and  of  grit, 
and  in  the  immediate  removal  of  defective  blocks.  The  reinstatement  of 
gas,  water,  and  drainage-trenches  must  be  classed  under  the  first  heading  ; 
and  although  an  apparently  small  matter,  yet,  from  the  frequency  of  such 
openings,  so  serious  an  interference  with  the  street  surface  is  created  that 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  surface  uniformity  cannot  be  maintained  unless 
this  work  is  very  carefully  executed,  and  ample  time  allowed  to  elapse 
before  the  traffic  is  allowed  to  pass  over  the  work.  After  a  pavement  has 
been  laid  for  three  years  the  existence  of  defective  blocks  becomes  appar- 
ent, as  by  this  time,  the  first  effect  of  compression  having  ceased,  the  fibres 
of  such  blocks  begin  to  yield  under  traffic  pressure,  with  the  result  that 
slight  surface  depressions  are  formed.  When  this  happens  a  bumping 
motion  is  created,  and  as  the  wheels  then  strike  upon  the  edges  of  the 
adjoining  blocks  it  is  obvious  that  the  surface  must  become  irregular;  and 
depressions  or  hollows  a  foot  square  or  more  are  soon  formed,  which,  unless 
promptly  remedied,  materially  spoil  the  surface. 

,.  To  avoid  slipperiness  and  to  insure  many  of  the  advantages  claimed  for 
wood  pavement,  it  is  essential  that  a  thorough  and  systematic  service  of 
cleansing  must  be  carried  out,  especially  where  macadam  pave- 
ments are  contiguous  to  wood,  as  in  damp  weather  a  considerable 
amount  of  mud  is  imported  from  them.  In  connection  with 
the  wood  pavement  in  Chelsea  there  is  a  regular  street  orderly  ser- 
vice, by  which  horse-droppings  are  removed  and  deposited  in  bins. 
In  addition  thereto  the  wood  pavements  are  washed  once  or  twice 
a  week,  and  are  cleansed  daily  either  by  horse-sweeping  machines  or  by 
hand  labor.  In  the  absence  of  heavy  rains  mere  sweeping  fails  to  keep 
wood  pavement  clean,  and  washing  then  becomes  essential.  To  effect  this 
water-vans  are  sent  out  before  midnight,  and  the  surface  is  so  thoroughly 
soaked  that,  by  the  time  the  sweeping  machines  commence  to  work  at  3 
A.  M.,  the  dirt  is  easily  removed,  the  entire  operation  being  concluded  in 
the  forenoon.  The  ascertained  cost  of  this  service,  including  labor  and 
horse  hire  in  washing  and  sweeping,  street  orderly  work,  and  collection  and 
removal  of  the  sweepings,  amounts  to  $\d.  per  square  yard  per  annum,  as 
against  \\d.  per  square  yard  for  macadam  previous  to  the  substitution  of 
wood.  It  has  been  asserted  upon  good  authority  that  the  cost  of  cleansing 
wood  pavement  is  very  trivial  ;  this  is  slightly  misleading,  the  proportions 
being  approximately  : 

Macadam i.oo 

Wood . .  0.41 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  4! 

Theoretically,  the  amount  of  mud  created  upon  the  surface  of  wood,  as 
also  in  the  case  of  asphalt,  should  be  almost  nil  ;  but  practically  the  author 
finds  that  some  2,700  cartloads  are  annually  removed  from  a  length  of  about 
three  miles  in  Chelsea.  Therefore,  after  making  every  allowance  for  the 
conversion  into  mud  of  350  loads  of  sand  placed  on  the  wood  when  slip- 
pery, it  is  obvious  that  a  great  portion  of  the  mud  is  imported  from  the 
adjacent  macadam. 

The  plentiful  application  of  water  prior  to  the  work  of  cleansing  is  most 
beneficial,  both  in  preventing  dust,  and,  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  in 
removing  the  cause  of  obnoxious  smells  ;  but  as  the  metropolitan  water- 
supply  is  not  yet  in  the  hands  of  the  ratepayers,  its  use  for  this  purpose  is 
materially  restricted.  The  author  ventures  to  assert  that  the  system  of 
cleansing  thus  described  is  amply  sufficient  to  obviate  slippery  surfaces 
caused  by  the  accumulation  of  greasy  mud,  and  that  the  summer  watering 
may  be  so  carried  out  that  a  minimum  wetting  will  suffice  to 
keep  down  the  dust.  Letters  have  recently  appeared  in  the 
Times  with  reference  to  the  watering  and  cleansing  of  wood 
pavements,  in  which  it  has  been  strongly  urged  that  such  pavements 
should  not  be  watered  at  all.  When  it  is  considered  in  what  an 
unskillful  manner  street-watering  is  sometimes  done,  and  that,  owing  to 
the  stupidity  or  carelessness  of  carmen,  considerable  danger  to  locomo- 
tion is  caused  by  overwatering  a  dirty  pavement,  there  may  be  some  justifi- 
cation for  the  contention.  Doubtless  horses  travel  better  on  dry  wood  pave- 
ment than  on  a  watered  surface,  but  in  the  absence  of  rain,  watering  is  an 
absolute  necessity  for  keeping  down  fine  dust,  more  especially  upon  a  hot 
windy  day,  when  at  least  five  or  six  wettings  are  required.  Watering  is 
also  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  wood  itself,  as  without  water  it 
would  be  materially  injured  by  abrasion  under  such  conditions.  It  is  also 
questionable  whether  the  very  fine  dust  which  must  be  given  off  under  a 
non- watering  system,  would  not  become  so  serious  as  to  be  injurious  to 
health  and  promote  disease  of  the  eye  ;  but  apart  from  this,  the  nuisance 
from  the  heat  and  dust  combined  would  become  intolerable. 

In  continuous  damp  and  foggy  weather  and  on  frosty  nights  wood 
pavement  is  especially  liable  to  become  slippery  ;  therefore,  to  insure  a  safe 
foot-hold  for  horses,  its  surface  should  be  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of 
Thames  sand  or  grit.  In  Chelsea  it  has  been  found  that  this  operation  can 
be  more  expeditiously  and  evenly  carried  out  by  horse-machines  known  as 
"  sand-distributors  "  than  by  manual  labor  alone.  Night  gangs  have  been 
organized,  and,  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  weather,  the  machines  are 
sent  out  either  at  night  or  early  in  the  morning  ;  in  the  latter  case  the  whole 
of  the  wood  is  sanded  and  made  fit  for  traffic  by  8  o'clock.  The  operation 
is  beneficial  to  the  wood  itself,  and  might  be  advantageously  carried  out  at 
other  times,  because  the  grit  becomes  so  well  worked  into  the  ends  or  fibres 
of  the  blocks  that  it  not  only  affords  protection  to  them,  but  insures  a  bet- 
ter foot-hold  for  horses.  The  ascertained  cost  of  the  sandings  does  not 
exceed  \d.  per  square  yard  per  annum. 

Durability. — One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  connection  with 
durability  is  the  amount  of  traffic  to  which  the  pavement  is  sub- 
jected. As  the  author  has  been  unable  to  obtain  complete  information 
thereon  he  has  had  to  rest  content  with  the  available  figures,  and  has 
reluctantly  omitted  results  and  comparison  of  other  important  streets. 
Table  III.  shows  (i)  the  daily  traffic  weight  per  yard  width  ;  (2)  the  depth 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 


of  annual  wear  of  wood  ;  and  (3)  the  annual  wear  of  wood  as  reduced  to  a 
standard  of  traffic  equal  to  750  tons  per  yard  width  daily,  or  235,000  tons  per 
annum,  exclusive  of  Sundays.  It  is  gratifying  to  remark  that  there  is  a 
growing  tendency  to  make  observations  and  keep  records  of  traffic  weight, 
wear  and  cost,  and  it  is  only  by  these  means  that  reliable  data  can  be 
obtained.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  therefore,  that  both  local  authorities  and  wood- 
pavement  companies  will  institute  the  desired  inquiries,  by  which  means 
much  valuable  experience  and  knowledge  will  be  gained.  The  comparative 
annual  wear  reveals  several  inconsistencies.  For  instance,  the  wear  of  the 
asphaltic  pavement  in  Fleet  Street,  with  the  maximum  traffic  weight,  or  24th 
on  the  list,  is  but  i6th  in  point  of  wear,  whereas  the  same  system  with  the  i3th 
and  gth  traffic  weight  positions, takes  the  high  places  of  24th  and  23d  in  wear. 
Lloyd's  pavement  in  Regent  Street  has  an  8th  traffic-weight  position,  but 
is  2oth  in  wear.  The  wear  of  the  Improved,  of  Henson's,  and  of  the  plain 
pitch-pine  pavements  compares  favorably  in  all  cases  with  the  traffic  weight. 
The  lesson  to  be  drawn  from  these  figures  would  appear  to  be  that  the 


III. — COMPARATIVE  WEAR  OF  WOOD  PAVEMENTS  AS   REDUCED  TO   A 
TRAFFIC  STANDARD. 


SITUATION. 

SYSTEM. 

Weight    per 
yard  width 
per  day  of 
sixteen 
hours. 

Depth  of 
annual 
wear  of 
wood. 

Comparative 
annual  wear 
of  wood  as 
reduced  to  a 
traffic  stan- 
dard Of  750 
tons    per 
yard  width 
per  diem. 

^fjMfipt  Street 

Asphaltic 

Tons. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

,360 
,236 
,191 
,I65 
,164 

,137 
,106 
,000 
985 

948 
808 
648 
603 
584 
584 
558 
558 
558 
55i 
498 
468 

434 

407 
279 

0.456 
0.428 
0.191 
0.269 

0.475 
0.484 
0.154 
0.264 
0.329 

0.323 

O.2OO 

0-373 
0.157 
o.  184 
0.198 
0.286 
0.214 
0.089 

0.144 
0.139 
0.055 

0.139 

O.III 

0.065 

0.251 
0.259 
0.120 

0.173 

0.306 
0.319 
o  104 

0.198 
0.250 

0.255 

0.186 

o.43i 
0.195 
0.236 
0.254 
0.384 
0.288 
0.119 
0.196 
0.209 
0.088 

0.240 

0.204 
0.175 

Ludgate  Hill  
*Oxford  Street  .  .  . 
*Fleet  Street 

Improved                

Henson's(east  section)  .  . 
Henson's              

*Oxford  Street.  .. 
*Oxford  Street  
*Parliament  Street 
*Leadenhall  Street 
*  Oxford  Street.  .  .  . 

*Oxford  Street.  .  .  . 
*Leadenhall  Street 
Brompton  Road  .  . 
King's  Road  
Brompton  Road  .  . 
*Edgeware  Road  . 
*Regent  Street  .  .  . 
*Regent  Street  .  .  . 
King's  Road 

Plain        

Asphaltic 

Improved 

Henson's 

Henson's  (west  section)  . 
Henson's    (central    sec- 
tion)      .  .           ... 

Improved  

Asphaltic 

Improved 

Henson's    

Plain      

Asphaltic             .  . 

Lloyd's 

Improved  (pitch-pine)  .  . 
Plain      

King's  Road  
King's  Road  

Plain  (asphalt  bed)  
Plain  (pitch-pine)  ..... 

King's  Road 

King's  Road 

Creosoted  blocks   (mas- 
tic joint)        

King's  Road 

Creosoted    blocks   (lime 
"joint)  .  .           

Sloane  Street  

Plain             

*  Weight  of  traffic  taken  from  Mr.  Howarth's  paper  in  these  instances. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  43 

asphaltic  and  Lloyd's  systems  are  not  successful ;  and  the  author  cannot 
help  regretting  that  Regent  Street  should  have  been  paved  upon  either  of 
these  particular  systems.  The  pavement  in  Parliament  Street  is  stated  to 
have  worn  £  inch  only  in  three  and  a  quarter  years,  but  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  its  real  wear  has  scarcely  begun,  and  that  the  traffic  weight  is 
high.  Should  its  life  be  eight  years  (which  is  extremely  doubtful),  it  would 
take  a  higher  position,  as  the  annual  cost  would  probably  be  is.  6d.  per 
square  yard. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  that  some  pavements  have  exhibited  a  consid- 
erable degree  of  durability  and  have  had  a  tolerably  fair  life.  In  the 
author's  table  the  pavements  and  periods  under  the  headings  "  actual " 
life  relate  to  accomplished  facts,  while  several  under  the  heading  "  esti- 
mated "  have  already  nearly  realized  the  life  allotted  to  them.  In  other 
cases  the  estimate  is  given  after  inspection  and  measurement  or  inquiry. 
The  number  of  the  pavements  is  necessarily  restricted  in  consequence  of 
the  absence  of  traffic-weight  records. 

The  author  inclines  to  the  opinion  that  it  is  not  desirable  to  lay  blocks 
of  a  greater  depth  than  will  provide  for  a  life  of  seven  years,  as  very  few 
pavements  retain  a  good  surface  after  about  six  years'  wear.  In  the  case 
of  the  pavements  previously  described  which  have  attained  a  greater  life 
than  seven  years,  it  is  proper  to  explain  that  those  periods  were  only 
insured  by  the  execution  of  frequent  and  somewhat  costly  repairs.  For 
instance,  a  considerable  number  of  new  blocks,  of  depths  varying  from  3 
inches  to  5  inches,  according  to  the  extent  of  wear,  had  to  be  inserted 
in  most  cases,  while  in  others  the  old  blocks  were  taken  up,  reversed  and 
relaid.  These  operations,  however,  are  very  unsatisfactory,  both  in  appear- 
ance and  ultimate  result .  Experience  consequently  suggests  that  if  5-inch 
blocks  were  adopted  instead  of  6-inch,  it  would  be  preferable  ;  and  the 
author  favors  the  opinion  that  the  smaller  depth  would  be  found  not  only 
sufficient,  but  more  economical  and  suitable,  and  would  obviate  much  patch- 
ing. Five-inch  blocks  are  cheaper  by  IQS.  per  thousand,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  in  the  first  cost  and  twice  renewal  of  a  pavement  which  has  an  annual 
traffic  of  750  tons  per  yard  width,  there  would  be  a  reduction  in  cost  of  is. 
bat.  per  square  yard  in  fifteen  years,  or  \\d.  per  square  yard  per  annum. 
Even  if  the  average  annual  wear  of  6-inch  blocks  should  prove  to  be  very 
little,  after  seven  years'  wear  it  will  generally  be  found  that  the  surface  is 
irregular  ;  but  considerable  hesitation  is  always  shown  before  local  author- 
ities order  the  wood  to  be  renewed,  for  fear  that  they  may  be  accused  of 
waste  or  extravagance  in  removing  blocks  which  still  retain  a  good  depth, 
although  they  show  a  considerably  worn  and  bumpy  surface.  In  short, 
therefore,  5 -inch  blocks  would  give  as  good  a  surface  and  pavement  as 
6-inch  blocks  :  there  would  be  less  waste  of  timber  in  renewal,  and  on  the 
whole  there  is  little  doubt  that  pavements  would  be  kept  in  a  better  condi- 
tion. Blocks  having  a  depth  of  5  inches  only  have  been  laid  in  Oxford 
Street,  Leadenhall  Street  and  Aldersgate  Street,  and  in  Kensington  a  large 
area  has  been  laid  on  this  system  ;  and  the  result  so  far  appears  to  be 
satisfactory. 

The  author  has  obtained  numerous  specimens  of  blocks  from  various 
streets,  and  he  submits  nearly  sixty,  which  have  been  taken  from  Regent 
Street,  Pall  Mall,  Canon  Street,  Oxford  Street,  Ludgate  Hill,  Brompton 
Road.  Praed  Street,  Sloane  Street,  King's  Road,  and  Fulham  Road.  It 
will  be  observed  that  the  maximum  depth  of  wood  is  from  King's  Road 


44  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

(pitch-pine),  which  is  sf  inches  after  four  and  a  half  years'  wear,  and  that 
the  minimum  is  from  Oxford  Street  (near  Rathbone  Place)  which  is  if 
inches  after  six  years'  wear. 

Wood  Pavements  on  Grades. — Obviously  there  are  local  matters  to  be 
considered  in  connection  with  wood  pavement,  for  instance,  the  effect  of  traffic 
in  a  wood-paved  street  having  a  sharp  gradient.  This  has  not  specially  come 
under  the  author's  notice,  except  at  Ludgate  Hill,  where  the  blocks  laid  in 
1877  were  removed  in  February,  1884,  having  been,  it  is  alleged  "kicked 
out "  by  horses'  shoes,  and  not  fairly  worn  out  by  vehicles.  The  inclination 
of  the  carriageway  of  Ludgate  Hill  is  i  in  25.  Similar  results  are  noticeable 
at  the  Western  approach  to  Hyde  Park  Corner,  at  which  place  the  inclin- 
ation is  i  in  37.  The  question  of  gradient  in  wood-paved  streets  is  also  an 
important  factor  in  regard  to  the  tractive  action  of  horses  and  the  limit  of 
safety  for  foot-hold,  and  it  is  regrettable  that  so  little  experience  thereon  is 
extant.  In  the  city  the  steepest  gradient  paved  with  wood  is  in  Ludgate 
Hill  ;  in  some  parts  of  Piccadilly  the  inclination  is  i  in  25.  It  might  there- 
fore be  assumed  that,  so  far  as  actual  safety  is  concerned,  a  gradient  of  i  in 
20  would  not  be  too  steep.  In  Chelsea  the  main  roads  are  tolerably  level, 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  annual  wear  of  the  blocks  in  King's  Road 
(0.144  inch)  is  greater  in  consequence  of  the  increased  amount  of  omnibus 
traffic  which  has  recently  taken  place,  as,  owing  to  a  keen  competition, 
omnibuses  have  been  very  rapidly  driven  along  the  street  at  times.  A  con- 
siderable amount  of  light  traffic  has  also  seriously  tried  the  wood.  In  Sloane 
Street  the  nature  of  the  traffic  calls  for  no  particular  observation,  and  the 
annual  wear  of  the  wood  (0.065  inch),  together  with  the  traffic-standard 
wear,  gives  a  result  which  compares  favorably  and  satisfactorily  with  any 
other  street  in  London. 

To  insure  durability,  it  may  briefly  be  asserted  that  next  to  sound  con- 
struction it  is  highly  important  that  the  number  of  openings  for  gas  and 
water  services  should  be  limited,  and  that  undue  wear  and  tear  can  be  miti- 
gated by  efficient  cleansing  and  sanding.  Neglect  of  the  latter  not  only 
creates  slipperiness,  but  is  followed  by  permanent  injury  to  the  pavement 
itself. 

In  support  of  the  author's  views,  he  submits  a  number  of  blocks  as 
taken  up  from  various  streets  in  the  metropolis.  Some  are  remarkable  as 
specimens  of  excellent  durability,  while  others  exhibit  considerable  wear, 
and  the  very  thin  ones  have  created  great  surprise  that  a  pavement  could  be 
held  together  with  blocks  so  much  worn. 

Cost  of  Maintenance. — The  author  has  frequently  been  asked  whether 
the  wood  pavement  laid  in  Chelsea  has  proved  economical  as  compared 
with  macadam,  the  answer  to  which  may  be  found  in  the  following  state- 
ment, which  is  based  upon  the  assumption  that  the  average  life  of  the  wood 
blocks  will  be  seven  years,  and  which  shows  that  the  first  cost,  repairs, 
renewals,  and  cleansing,  if  spread  over  a  period  of  twenty  years,  amounts  to 
is.  qd.  per  square  yard,  whereas  the  previous  cost  of  repairing,  renewing, 
and  cleansing  macadam,  but  exclusive  of  first  cost,  amounted  to  2^.  lod. 
per  yard. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  45 

Estimated  Cost  of  Wood  Pavement  Per  Square  Yard  in  Chelsea,  for 
a  Period  of  Twenty  Years. 

£-  J-  d. 

First  cost o  10  6 

Repairs o    06 

Renewal  of  blocks  every  seven  years o  12  8 

Interest  on  loans  (at  4  per  cent.) o    29 

20)  i    65 


Per  annum o    i  4 

Add  cleansing  and  sanding o    o  5 


Total o    i  9 


If  the  cost  be  spread  over  a  period  of  fifteen  years  only,  the  figures  will 
be  increased  to  i s.  8f d.  per  yard  per  annum  for  the  wood  +  $d.  for  cleans- 
ing, or  a  total  of  2s.  \\d. 

Under  the  above  circumstances  it  may  be  fairly  assumed  that  the 
annual  cost  of  properly  constructing,  repairing,  and  renewing  wood  pave- 
ment, exclusive  of  cleansing,  which  is  subjected  to  a  traffic  of  500  to  700 
tons  per  yard  width  per  day  of  sixteen  hours,  and  leaving  it  in  a  thoroughly 
good  condition  at  the  expiration  of  fifteen  years,  does  not  exceed  is.  gd.  per 
square  yard ;  whereas  the  average  annual  cost  of  repairing  and  renewing 
the  macadamized  carriageways  in  Sloane  Street  and  King's  Road,  formerly 
amounted  to  is.  in/,  per  square  yard,  and  in  Westminster  similar  repairs 
cost: 

s.   d. 

In  Parliament  Street 2  10 

"Whitehall 2  io| 

"  Victoria  Street 2    o 

"  Great  George  Street i     8 

No  doubt  many  similar  instances  might  be  adduced,  in  support  of  the 
assertion  that,  as  a  paving  material,  wood  possesses  the  advantages  of 
economy,  independently  of  the  saving  in  cleansing. 

The  annual  cost  per  square  yard  for  laying  and  maintaining  wood 
pavements  in  various  localities,  including  interest  on  loans,  is  given  in  Table 
VI.  In  most  instances  the  actual  cost  has  been  supplied,  and  in  the 
remainder  it  has  been  carefully  estimated,  after  making  due  allowance  for 
efficient  and  creditable  maintenance. 

The  author  regrets  that  he  has  been  unsuccessful  in  obtaining  fuller 
information  as  to  the  cost  per  square  yard  relatively  to  the  traffic  weight  per 
yard  width,  but  such  information  as  he  has  obtained  he  has  classified  in  the 
following  table,  and  from  which  certain  deductions  are  drawn.  Until  local 
authorities,  or  those  persons  directly  interested  in  the  question,  adopt  meas- 
ures for  ascertaining  the  latter,  a  considerable  amount  of  theory  must 
necessarily  be  exercised  in  deciding  the  question  of  cost  according  to  the 
weight  of  traffic. 


46 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 


DAILY  TRAFFIC  WEIGHT  PER  YARD  WIDTH  OF  PAVEMENT. 


SYSTEM. 

400  tons. 

500  tons. 

750  tons. 

1,000  tons. 

1,250  tons. 

Plain  yellow  deal  . 

s.    d. 

I       4. 

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

I       Q 

s.   d. 

s.  d. 

i  ioi 

Plain  pitch  pine         

i     6 

Creosoted  yellow  deal  .  .  . 

i     61 

I      IOT 

Henson's.    .  .     

I         Q| 

i     o| 

2       O 

Improved  

i   ii 

2       \\ 

Asphaltic  

2       O 

2       OT 

Lloyd's.  .  . 

2       2 

The  figures  undoubtedly  give  the  plain  system  of  pavement  the  high- 
est position  in  an  economical  point  of  view,  and  show  the  comparative  cost 
of  other  systems  in  a  manner  not  hitherto  attainable. 

It  is  apparent  that  as  the  minimum  net  cost  of  a  soundly  constructed 
and  properly  maintained  wood  pavement  amounts  to  i  s.  gd.  per  square  yard 
for  a  traffic  of  500,  and  not  exceeding  750,  tons  per  yard  width,  the  absurdity 
of  some  of  the  maintenance  contracts  which  have  been  entered  into  is 
remarkable.  On  the  other  hand,  a  good  bargain  was  made  by  the  Improved 
Wood  Pavement  Co.  in  1876,  when  they  undertook  to  lay  and  maintain  a 
large  area  in  Piccadilly,  also  upward  of  2,000  square  yards  in  King's  Road, 
upon  the  "  deferred  payment "  system,  the  rate  for  Piccadilly  being  $s.  per 
square  yard  per  annum  for  a  period  of  fifteen  years.  The  result  will  con- 
sequently be  that  no  less  than  45^.  per  square  yard  will  eventually  be  paid 
for  an  expenditure  which  in  all  probability  will  not  greatly  exceed  30.?.  In 
justice  to  the  authorities,  who  entered  into  so  costly  a  contract,  it  should  be 
stated  that  in  the  year  1876  the  modern  system  of  wood  pavement  was  in 
its  infancy,  and  that  public  bodies  were  somewhat  timid  in  incurring  large 
outlays  thereon  ;  and  as  the  contract  stipulated  that  payment  would  cease 
immediately  the  contractors  failed  to  efficiently  maintain  the  pavement,  it 
was  considered  that  the  risk  would  be  small,  as  a  proportionate  amount  only 
would  have  been  paid. 

Much  trouble  has  been  caused  by  public  boards  accepting  low  tenders 
for  first  cost,  and  ridiculously  low  terms  for  continuous  maintenance,  and  it 
has  been  truly  stated  on  a  former  occasion  by  Mr.  Burt,  that  some  persons 
"  were  running  a  race  to  see  which  could  get  ruined  the  fastest."  This 
prophecy  has  been  literally  fulfilled,  but,  unfortunately,  as  in  the  case  of 
asphalt  and  other  systems  of  pavement  when  improperly  undertaken,  the 
consequences  had  seriously  damaged  the  reputation  of  wood  pavement. 
Considering  that  persons  enter  into  contracts  to  efficiently  maintain  large 
areas  of  pavements  with  a  daily  traffic  of  600  or  700  tons  per  yard  width, 
for  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  for  the  sum  of  gs.  per  yard,  whereas  the  net 
cost  in  all  probability  will  amount  to  13^.,  it  is  obvious  that  either  the  pave- 
ments will  be  insufficiently  repaired  or  renewed,  and  the  reputation  of  wood 
injured,  or  that  "  a  day  of  reckoning"  must  come.  With  the  experience 
already  gained,  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  that  public  authorities 
should  look  ahead,  and  not  accept  a  tender  merely  because  it  happens  to  be 
the  lowest.  Another  matter  ought  perhaps  to  be  mentioned,  although,  per- 
haps, a  somewhat  invidious  one — namely,  that  ample  and  competent  super- 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 


47 


vision  should  be  provided,  so  that  every  detail  in  the  execution  of  the  works, 
especially  the  rejection  of  unsound  blocks,  may  receive  attention.  The 
operation  of  inspecting  every  block  is  undoubtedly  tedious  ;  for  example,  in 
the  Chelsea  works,  where  the  timber  supplied  was  of  fair  quality,  it  was 
found  necessary  to  separately  sort  out,  reject,  and  mark  about  one  block  in 
twenty,  the  rejections  being  96,000  out  of  a  total  delivery  of  nearly  2,000,000; 
and  there  is  little  doubt  that,  owing  to  the  hurry  of  the  work,  many  blocks 


VI. — ANNUAL  COST  OF  VARIOUS  WOOD  PAVEMENTS. 


SYSTEM. 

SITUATION. 

Traffic      weight 
per  y'd  width 
per     diem    in 
tons. 

Annual  cost  per  sq.  y'd 
for  first  cost,  renew- 
als, repairs,  and  inter- 
est on  loans  (exclusive 
of  cleansing)  if  spread 
over  a  per'd  of  15  y'rs. 

Plain                 

Sloane  Street.  .  . 

27Q 

s.     d. 
3l 

Euston  Road  

7OO 

5i 

Plain  (pitch  pine  
Creosoted     blocks 
lime  joint)  

King's  Road  

468 
407 

6 

Henson's  

Oxford  Street  (C) 

948 

gf 

Plain  

King's  Road  

551 

g? 

Improved         

Leadenhall  Stre't 

808 

ol- 

Asphaltic       

Strand  

I,IOO 

io 

Plain 

Edge  ware  Road 

584. 

IOy 

M 

Oxford  Street.. 

1,164 

IO-  • 

'  '    (asphaltic  bed)  . 
Henson's  

King's  Road  . 
Oxford  Street  (E) 

498 

1,191 

10; 
IO^ 

Oxford  Stre't  (W) 

985 

IO^ 

Creosoted    blocks 
(mastic  joint)  
Asphaltic  

King's  Road  
Regent  Street.  .  . 

434 

558 

I      lOf 
2        O 

Improved             .    . 

Aldersgate  Stre't 

2       O 

N'th'mberl'd  Av. 

2        O 

Asphaltic  

Fleet  Street  

1,359 

3      ol 

Henson's 

(i 

1,165 

2        I    * 

Improved         

Oxford  Street.  .  . 

985 

2        I 

Asphaltic  

Brompton  Road. 

648 

2        I 

Henson's 

<t              it 

«?8d 

2        l4f 

Improved  

Parliament  Stre't 

1,106 

2          I 

Lloyd's    

Regent  Street... 

558 

2        2 

Asphaltic.  . 

Oxford  Street.  .  . 

1,137 

2        24- 

Carey  s  
Henson's.         

Canon    Street  — 
Leadenhall  Stre't 

1,000 

2      4 

2        81 

Improved  

Ludgate  Hill  

1,236 

2        Oi 

14 

Piccadilly. 

800 

•a        o 

14 

Knightsbridge. 

780 

•a      o 

(pitch  pine) 

King's  Road  

11                             Ci 

558 
6oq 

3      2 

^        2 

were  laid  which  escaped  rejection,  but  assuredly  these  will  be  the  first  to 
fail.  In  works  of  considerable  extent  it  would  undoubtedly  be  a  prudent 
expenditure  to  employ  a  competent  inspector  to  look  after  the  blocks 
alone. 

To  sum  up,  the  author  ventures  to  assert  that  a  properly  constructed 
and  kept  wood  pavement  meets  with  favor.  He  has  personally  ascertained 
that  shopkeepers  and  residents  like  it,  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of 


48  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

noise,  and  the  absence  of  the  inconvenience  usually  experienced  by  the  fre- 
quent closing  of  the  carriageway  for  repairs,  as  in  the  case  of  macadam  ; 
that  cabmen  give  it  their  unqualified  approval ;  and  that  the  Managing 
Director  of  the  London  General  Omnibus  Company  prefers  it,  if  properly 
kept,  to  either  granite,  asphalt,  or  macadam.  Of  course  exceptions  have 
to  be  made  in  this,  as  in  all  other  cases,  but  the  public  generally  appear  to 
be  satisfied  with  it.  There  are  sections  of  the  community,  however,  who 
do  not  view  it  with  favor,  especially  carriage-builders,  wheelwrights,  sad- 
dlers and  granite  merchants  ;  but  their  disapproval  will  be  readily  under- 
stood. The  improved  condition  of  the  carriageways  of  some  of  the  best 
thoroughfares  has  also  created  a  favorable  impression  upon  strangers  which 
has  not  been  lost,  inasmuch  as  deputations  have  inspected  the  various  sys- 
tems and  made  numerous  inquiries  into  their  respective  merits,  not  only  on 
the  part  of  the  municipalities  of  the  principal  towns  in  Great  Britain,  but 
from  France,  Germany,  and  other  countries.  At  the  present  time  a  large 
amount  of  wood  pavement  is  being  laid  in  Paris  and  Berlin  by  the  Improved 
Wood  Pavement  Company. 

The  author  has  described  somewhat  fully  the  details  of  what  may  be 
considered  to  be  mere  ordinary  matters,  but  as  the  success  or  failure  of 
wood  pavements  mainly  depends  upon  a  careful  consideration  of  apparent 
trifles,  he  trusts  that  he  may  be  pardoned  for  having  taken  this  course.  He 
is  of  opinion  that  local  authorities  should  in  variably  adopt  measures  for  ascer- 
taining the  traffic-weight  per  yard  width  in  a  street  before  deciding  to  lay 
down  wood  pavement,  as  such  information  might  prevent  contractors  from 
submitting  a  maintenance-tender  regardless  of  the  duty  the  pavement  has 
to  perform,  and  that  complete  records  of  annual  cost  and  wear  should  be 
kept.  He  again  ventures  to  remark  that  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged 
that  the  greatest  discretion  should  be  exercised  in  the  acceptance  of  tenders 
for  construction  and  maintenance,  and  that  no*  reasonable  expense  should 
be  spared  in  providing  ample  and  competent  supervision.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances he  is  of  opinion  that  a  close-jointed  plain  system  of  pavement, 
judiciously  and  faithfully  carried  out  and  improved  upon  from  time  to  time, 
will  give  good  economic  results,  as  well  as  insure  a  sound  and  suitable 
carriageway  pavement. 

Lastly,  the  author  submits  : 

(i.)  That  where  the  ascertained  annual  cost  of  maintaining  and  cleans- 
ing a  macadamized  carriageway  exceeds  2s.  zd.  per  square  yard,  or  where 
the  traffic  is  so  considerable  that  a  quieter  and  cleaner  pavement  is  deemed 
essential,  the  substitution  of  wood  is  desirable. 

(2.)  That  experience  has  proved  wood  pavement  to  be  an  economical 
and  a  convenient  carriageway  pavement  for  the  streets  of  the 
metropolis. 

(3.)  That,  notwithstanding  many  former  instances  of  failure,  the  mod- 
ern system  has  achieved  a  fair  amount  of  success,  and  there  is  no  apparent 
reason  why  its  use  should  not  be  extended. 

THE    DISCUSSION.* 

Obnoxious  Smells. — Mr.  G.  H.  Stayton  said  he  had  been  told 
that  his  paper  did  not  deal  with  the  obnoxious  smells  sometimes 
experienced  in  connection  with  wood  pavement.  He  thought,  how- 

*  [The  Italics  when  used  in  the  text  are  ours.] — Ed. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  49 

ever,  that  he  had  dealt  with  the  subject  fully  under  the  head  of 
management ;  he  had  certainly  intended  to  do  so  by  drawing  atten- 
tion to  the  absolute  necessity  for  a  plentiful  supply  of  water  for  the 
purposes  of  cleansing.  Of  some  samples  of  wood  pavement  which 
he  exhibited,  one  block  had  been  taken  up  from  Oxford  Street  a 
month  or  six  weeks  ago,  and  it  showed  that  wood  pavement  could 
be  worn  down  to  the  thickness  of  a  mere  crust,  and  still  retain  a  fair 
surface.  It  was  originally  about  six  inches  in  depth,  and  was  laid 
in  1878.  The  wear  was  simply  owing  to  the  traffic  upon  it. 

Traction  and  Foot-hold. — Sir  Joseph  Bazalgette,  C.  B.,  president, 
asked  if  the  author  could  give  any  further  opinion  on  the  subject 
of  traction  and  foot-hold  with  wood  pavement  as  compared  with 
other  kinds  of  pavement. 

Mr.  Stayton  said  he  could  give  no  further  opinion  on  the  sub- 
ject. It  had  been  exhaustively  treated  a  few  years  ago  by  Mr.  W. 
Haywood,  the  City  Engineer  ;  he  had  not,  therefore,  thought  it 
necessary  to  deal  with  it  again.  The  average  thickness  of  the  pave- 
ment at  present  in  Oxford  Street  was  3.30  inches  ;  but  at  certain 
parts  it  was  not  thicker  than  the  block  to  which  he  had  drawn  atten- 
tion (i-|  inch),  which  was  a  fair  specimen  of  the  pavement  at  those 
parts  where  the  traffic  was  concentrated. 

Rankings  Pavement. — Mr.  W.  Lawford  remembered  when,  in 
1841,  a  part  of  Whitehall  and  a  part  of  St.  Giles  were  laid  with 
Rankin's  patent  wood  pavement.  It  was  down  only  six  or  eight 
months  when  it  failed,  owing,  as  he  believed,  to  insufficient  drainage 
and  a  bad  foundation  ;  besides  which  the  cost  came  to  £2  los.  or 
^3  per  square  yard.  The  success  of  the  present  wood  pavements 
was  no  doubt  largely  owing  to  the  good  foundations  on  which  they 
were  laid.  He  remembered  seeing  the  pavement  put  down  between 
the  Chapel  Royal,  Whitehall,  and  the  Horse  Guards.  There  was  no 
concrete,  but  only  a  wood  framing  as  a  sub-structure.  A  full 
description  of  it,  with  illustrations,  would  be  found  in  the  Civil 
Engineers'  and  Architects1  Journal,  for  September,  1841.  From  the 
same  publication  he  found  that  in  1838  many  streets  in  Philadelphia 
were  paved  with  wood,  and  he  believed  that  the  pavements  remained 
to  the  present  day,  but  he  did  not  know  the  results. 

Mr.  W.  Weaver  considered  that  some  apology  was  due  from  him 
as  Surveyor  of  the  parish  of  Kensington,  where  by  far  the  largest 
area  of  wood  pavement  had  been  laid,  for  not  having  presented  a 
paper  on  the  subject  to  the  Institution  ;  but  as  the  terms  under 
which  he  held  his  appointment  involved  the  devotion  of  his  whole 
time  to  the  duties  of  his  office,  he  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
he  could  not  abstract  from  those  duties  the  time  necessary  for  the 
preparation  of  such  a  paper.  He  agreed  with  the  author  in  the 


50  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

three  propositions  at  the  end  of  his  paper,  especially  the  third,  that 
notwithstanding  many  former  instances  of  failure,  the  modern  system 
had  achieved  a  fair  amount  of  success,  and  that  there  was  no  appar- 
ent reason  why  its  use  should  not  be  extended.  So  far  from  there 
being  no  apparent  reason  why  its  use  should  not  be  extended,  he 
thought  there  was  a  good  apparent  reason  why  its  use  should  be 
very  much  extended  in  consequence  of  an  injunction  that  had  lately 
been  granted  against  his  board  with  reference  to  the  use  of  steam- 
rollers. If  that  decision  was  not  upset  (the  parish  authorities  were 
about  to  appeal  against  it)  he  did  not  think  the  public  would  like  to 
revert  to  the  state  of  things  existing  twenty  years  ago,  when  the  traffic 
had  to  jplow  its  way  through  the  newly-laid  macadam,  and  in  such 
case  wood  pavement  was  likely  to  extend  very  much. 

Wood  Pavements  in  London. — There  were  some  details  on  which 
he  could  not  quite  agree  with  the  author,  one  of  which  was  the  state- 
ment that  wood  pavement  was  laid  down  better  and  cheaper  in 
Chelsea  than  in  any  other  part  of  London.  In  Kensington  seven 
different  kinds  of  pavement  had  been  tried — he  believed  every  known 
kind  except  Carey's  keyed-joint — and  the  result  of  his  experience  of 
those  systems  had  led  him  to  believe  that  the  most  economical  wood 
pavement  that  could  be  laid  was  the  plain  deal,  if  it  was  to  be  laid 
under  competitive  tenders  where  the  wood  had  to  be  inspected  to  see 
that  it  was  of  a  proper  description  ;  but  if  the  work  was  not  tendered 
for,  if  a  good  price  was  given  for  a  good  article,  and  it  was  wished 
to  have  the  work  done  expeditiously,  he  preferred  the  system  of  the 
Improved  Wood  Paving  Company  with  pickled  blocks  and  asphalt 
joint.  The  work  was  got  through  much  more  rapidly  in  that  way, 
and  from  the  results  in  Kensington,  he  was  sure  that  the  system 
would  last  as  long,  if  not  longer,  than  the  plain  system ;  the  cost, 
however,  was  about  is.  6d.  per  square  yard  more.  The  assumed 
superior  merits  of  the  wood  pavement  in  Chelsea  appeared  to  be 
due,  according  to  the  author,  to  the  work  having  been  executed  by 
his  own  staff  and  the  substitution  of  studs  for  asphalt  or  laths.  But 
he  could  not  see  the  advantage  of  the  parish  doing  the  work  with 
their  own  staff.  If  they  invited  tenders  for  the  supply  of  so  many 
tons  of  Portland  cement,  so  many  cubic  yards  of  Thames  ballast, 
and  for  breaking  up  the  surface,  they  had  merely  a  series  of  competi- 
tive tenders  for  the  work  in  detail,  whereas  in  the  other  case  they 
had  one  tender  for  the  complete  work  ;  and  he  thought  that  the  one 
profit  in  the  latter  case  was  less  than  the  various  profits  in  the  other. 
He  might  mention  a  practical  illustration  which  had  come  under  his 
own  notice  in  the  Fulham  Road.  It  was  the  last  extensive  piece  of 
work  that  the  author  had  done,  and  at  the  same  time  Mr.  Weaver 
was  paving  a  portion  of  the  same  road  under  his  charge  extending 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  5  I 

from  the  Brompton  Oratory  to  Thistle  Grove.  In  his  own  case,  the 
work  was  done  by  Messrs.  Nowell  and  Robson  under  contract,  at  ys.  $d. 
per  yard,  whereas  in  the  author's  case  it  was  los.  $d.  or  lod.  a  square 
yard  more,  and  the  time  of  execution  was  about  forty  per  cent, 
longer.  It  would  be  apparent  to  every  one  practically  acquainted 
with  the  subject  that  it  was  necessary  to  consider  not  only  the  ques- 
tion of  cheapness  in  first  cost,  but  the  interests  of  those  who  were  to 
find  the  money  for  the  execution  of  the  pavement  —  namely,  the 
ratepayers,  some  of  whom  were  abutting  frontagers  ;  and  it  was  a 
matter  of  considerable  moment  to  a  shopkeeper  on  a  line  of  thor- 
oughfare to  have  his  receipts  diminished  £$  or  £20  a  week  in 
consequence  of  the  road  being  up.  Time,  therefore,  was  of  great 
importance.  Again,  there  was  a  great  disadvantage  in  having  to 
pick  up  the  laborers  almost  as  they  came  ;  it  might  take  several 
weeks  to  get  them  into  working  condition  ;  but  if  the  order  were 
given  to  an  established  firm  they  could  at  once  send  a  number  of 
men  of  experience  in  their  several  departments,  so  that  they  would 
get  half-way  through  their  work  before  the  others  had  started.  The 
question  as  to  when  it  became  economical  to  substitute  wood-paving 
for  macadamized  roads  was  an  important  point  for  a  board  to 
consider  when  about  to  launch  a  large  wood-paving  loan.  His 
figures  were  not  quite  the  same  as  the  author's,  but  they  came  to 
very  much  the  same  in  the  result.  He  was  not  able  to  separate  the 
scavenging  from  the  maintenance ;  but  he  had  always  advised  his 
board  that  if  a  macadamized  road  cost  is.  6d.  per  square  yard  per 
annum  for  maintenance,  it  was  cheaper  to  put  down  a  wood  pave- 
ment, and  that  was  a  very  similar  conclusion  to  the  one  at  which  the 
author  had  arrived.  With  regard  to  the  question  of  studs,  he  had 
tried  various  kinds,  single-pointed  and  double-pointed,  but  his  expe- 
rience was  that  they  did  not  produce  such  regular  jointing  as  asphalt 
or  lath-joints,  the  lath  being  left  in.  If  the  lath  was  withdrawn,  the 
brooms  passing  over  the  surface  sweeping  in  the  liquid  grout  dis- 
turbed the  regularity  of  the  surface.  Studs  were  generally  driven  in 
by  boys,  who  were  not  models  of  carefulness,  hence  some  were 
driven  in  very  hard  (perhaps  after  the  men  had  had  their  dinner), 
while  in  other  cases,  when  the  men  were  tired,  a  good  deal  of  the 
stud  projected.  He  would  leave  the  practical  point  as  to  superiority 
to  be  decided  by  members  who  could  examine  and  contrast  the  two 
pieces  of  pavement  in  the  Fulham  Road  to  which  he  had  alluded  ; 
that  east  of  Thistle  Grove,  executed  by  Kensington,  and  the  other 
portion  west,  carried  out  by  Chelsea. 

Mr.  L.  H.  Isaacs  regretted  that  he  could  not  agree  with 
either  of  the  three  proposals  which  the  author  had  asked  the 
institution  to  indorse.  The  paper  appeared  to  be  written 


52  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

with  optimist  views,  the  author  having  charge  of  a  suburban 
or  semi-suburban  district,  and  apparently  not  being  aware 
of  what  actual  London  traffic  was.  The  instances  of  wear  and  tear 
which  he  had  cited  were  confined  to  King's  Road  and  Sloane 
Street.  Mr.  Isaacs  desired  to  set  against  them  the  experience  he 
had  obtained  in  a  central  portion  of  London  over  which  London 
traffic,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  actually  passed.  The  state- 
ment that  wood  pavement  was  calculated  to  last  seven  or  eight  years 
was,  he  thought,  misleading.  He  was  ready  to  indorse  all  that  had 
been  said  as  to  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  wood  pavement, 
but  the  question  of  cost  ought  also  to  be  considered.  The  author's 
first  proposition  stated  that  where  the  ascertained  cost  of  maintaining 
and  cleansing  a  macadamized  carriageway  exceeded  2s.  zd.  per  square 
yard  per  annum,  or  where  the  traffic  was  so  considerable  that  a 
quieter  and  cleaner  pavement  was  deemed  essential,  the  substitution 
of  wood  was  desirable.  He  entirely  agreed  with  the  second  part  of 
the  proposition,  but  the  first  was  wrong.  The  author  had  admitted 
that  the  statistics  of  his  own  office  showed  that  the  cleansing 
amounted  to  iid.  per  square  yard  per  annum,  leaving  for  main- 
tenance is.  $d.  per  square  yard  per  annum.  If  he  had  gone  to  Lon- 
don proper,  he  would  have  found  that  the  cost  of  mere  maintenance 
was  from  6d.  to  15-.  In  his  own  district  the  cost  in  some  streets  was 
6d.,  in  others  9^.,  and  in  the  majority  is.  Mr.  Weaver  had  stated 
that  about  is.  6d.  was  the  proper  sum  due  to  maintenance.  Which 
was  right?  Or  would  engineers  be  justified  in  rejecting  the  advice 
of  both,  and  taking  instead  the  evidence  of  a  man  like  Mr.  Hay- 
wood,  the  City  Engineer,  who  had  charge  of  streets  over  which 
true  London  traffic  passed?  With  regard  to  the  economy  of  wood 
pavement,  the  author  had  clearly  failed  to  prove  his  proposition.  It 
was  certainly  convenient,  indeed  luxurious,  and  where  the  rate- 
payers were  willing  to  pay  for  the  luxury  ihere  was  no  reason  why 
they  should  not  have  it.  When  a  rich  banker  drew  a  check  for  the 
rates  of  his  premises,  rated  perhaps  at  ^ro,ooo,  it  was  of  little  con- 
sequence whether  the  amount  of  the  check  was  ^1,500  or  ^£2,000. 
In  like  manner  it  was  a  matter  of  indifference  to  a  wealthy  inhabi- 
tant of  Prince's  Gate  whether  in  drawing  a  check  for  the  rates  of  his 
house  the  amount  was  ;£i6o  or  ^200.  Such  persons  would  rather 
draw  for  a  larger  amount  and  have  the  comfort  of  a  noiseless  pave- 
ment than  draw  for  the  smaller  amount  and  revert  to  the  old  state 
of  things.  The  author's  third  proposition,  "that  notwithstanding 
many  former  instances  of  failure  the  modern  system  has  achieved  a 
fair  amount  of  success,  and  that  there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  its 
use  should  not  be  extended,"  had  been  drawn  with  great  caution. 
There  had  been  no  doubt  "  a  fair  amount "  of  success,  and  enormous 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  53 

improvements  had  been  made  in  the  wooden  pavements  of  the 
present  day,  as  compared  with  those  put  down  twenty-eight  years 
ago  ;  but,  after  all,  the  question  was  very  largely  one  of  cost.  He 
would  invite  the  members  to  consider  Chancery  Lane,  Southampton 
Buildings,  High  Holborn,  Lamb's  Conduit  Street,  Hatton  Garden, 
and  Great  Ormond  Street,  which  it  would  be  admitted  were  fair 
representatives  of  streets  with  ordinary  London  traffic.  They  were 
all  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holborn  District  Board  of  Works. 
Chancery  Lane  was  first  laid  Vith  wood  in  the  Michaelmas  quarter 
of  1876  by  the  Improved  Wood  Pavement  Co.,  which  he  thought 
was  one  of  the  best  wood-paving  companies  in  London.  The  area 
was  1,960  square  yards,  and  the  first  cost  was  ,£1,557  ios.  or  about 
15.?.  per  square  }ard.  The  complaints  against  it  were  numerous 
and  grave.  It  was  laid  on  the  principle  adopted  by  the  company 
of  transverse  boards,  with  concrete  as  a  foundation.  The  noise  of 
the  traffic  passing  over  the  granite  pavement  which  previously 
existed  was  so  great  that  the  dwellers  in  Stone  Buildings  and  Chan- 
cery Lane  petitioned  the  board  to  lay  down  wood  pavement,  and 
even  offered  to  contribute  to  the  cost ;  but  after  it  had  been  down  a 
few  years  they  complained  of  the  shaking  of  the  windows  and  the 
general  unpleasantness,  and  asked  that  it  might  be  taken  up  again. 
The  company,  on  being  communicated  with,  stated  that  they  had 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  system  adopted  was  a  mistake,  and 
that  they  were  prepared  to  alter  it.  To  their  credit  it  should  be 
stated  that  they  took  up  the  whole  of  the  pavement  and  relaid  it  at 
their  own  cost  upon  their  modern  improved  system,  with  entirely 
new  blocks  and  new  materials.  That  was  in  1881,  and  no  com- 
plaints as  to  rumbling  and  vibration  had  been  made  since  that 
time.  If  the  pavement  lasted  till  1886  he  should  think  it  would 
have  done  its  duty,  and  he  would  have  no  cause  of  complaint.  The 
wooden  pavement  of  Southampton  Buildings,  where  the  traffic  was 
much  lighter  than  in  Chancery  Lane,  was  laid  down  in  the  Christ- 
mas quarter  of  1876.  It  contained  1,063  yards  superficial,  and  the 
cost  was  £824,  or  155-.  per  square  yard.  It  was  largely  relaid  in 
the  year  1882.  The  first  pavement  that  he  took  in  hand  when  he 
was  appointed  Surveyor  of  the  Holborn  District  was  the  wood  pave- 
ment in  High  Holborn,  which  he  removed,  and  for  which  he  substi- 
tuted granite  pavement  in  1857.  In  the  Christmas  quarter  of  1877 
a  wooden  pavement  was  laid  down  in  High  Holborn.  The  portion 
in  the  Holborn  District  contained  3,842  yards  superficial,  and  its 
cost  was  £3,030  u.,  which  again  was  about  15^.  per  square  yard. 
That  pavement  entirely  failed  to  carry  out  the  views,  not  only  of 
himself  and  of  the  board,  but  of  the  company  which  supplied  it, 
although  they  were  paid  the  highest  price  for  laying  it  down,  and 


54  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

for  subsequent  maintenance.  The  pavement  was  continued  through 
New  Oxford  Street,  as  far  as  Tottenham  Court  Road,  and  it  was 
considered  at  the  time  as  fine  a  sample  of  wood  pavement  as  had 
been  laid  in  London  proper. 

In  the  early  part  of  1882,  when  the  pavement  had  been  down 
less  than  five  years,  it  became  evident  that  its  life  had  gone,  and 
that  it  would  have  to  be  taken  up.  It  had  been  his  duty  to  take  up 
the  portion  in  Holborn  in  sections,  in  the  years  1882-3  5  an^  not 
one  block  laid  in  1877  was  now  to  be  found  there.  He  might  also 
mention,  lest  it  should  be  thought  that  the  circumstances  had  arisen 
from  some  want  of  care  on  the  part  of  the  officials  of  the  Holborn 
District,  that  the  portion  laid  down  in  the  St.  Giles's  district  as  far 
as  Tottenham  Court  Road  had  also  been  removed  and  relaid  with 
Val  de  Travers  asphalt.  The  wood  pavement  in  Hatton  Garden^ 
which  was  considered  a  very  suitable  thoroughfare  for  the  purpose, 
was  laid  in  the  Michaelmas  quarter  of  1878.  It  contained  4,679 
yards  superficial,  and  cost  ,£3,743,  or  i$s.  6d.  per  square  yard.  It 
was  laid  in  1878,  and  yesterday,  May  27,  1884,  the  Val  de  Travers 
Asphalt  Company  proceeded  to  take  it  up,  and  they  were  now  lay- 
ing down  asphalt  in  its  stead.  With  those  facts  before  them  he 
asked  the  members  of  the  Institution  to  pause  before  they  too 
readily  indorsed  the  propositions  of  the  author  with  reference  to  the 
economy  of  w6od  pavement. 

Traction  on  Wood  and  Macadam. — Mr.  W.  E.  Rich  said,  he 
thought  the  question  asked  by  the  President  with  reference  to  trac- 
tion was  most  important.  He  believed  that  wood  pavement  was 
extremely  favorable  in  regard  to  its  low  resistance  to  traction,  and 
that  was  an  important  element  which  should  encourage  its  extensive 
adoption.  He  hoped  that  some  information  would  be  forthcoming 
on  the  subject,  obtained  by  means  of  the  new  dynamometer  belong- 
ing to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works.  He  had  himself  had  two 
hours'  run  with  it  a  few  months  ago  in  some  preliminary  trials,  and 
he  had  been  surprised  at  the  immense  reduction  in  traction  on 
going  from  a  macadamized  road  to  a  wood  pavement.  He  believed 
that  the  traction  over  a  wood  pavement  did  not  exceed  one  half  of 
that  over  a  macadamized  road,  and  it  was  much  less  than  that  over 
a  stone  pavement. 

Merits  of  Asphalt  and  Wood. — Mr.  E.  Matheson  inquired  why 
the  author  had  omitted  all  reference  to  asphalt.  The  paper  seemed 
to  imply  that  wood  was  the  only  alternative  to  macadam.  Mr.  Wil- 
liam Haywood  had  exhausted  the  subject  a  few  years  ago,  but  he 
thought  that  later  experience  might  induce  him  slightly  to  modify 
his  views.  In  many  respects  asphalt  was  better  than  wood.  The 
question  of  cost  was  not  the  only  one  to  be  considered.  In  regard 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  55 

to  traction  he  had  no  doubt  that  asphalt  was  much  superior  to  wood  ; 
but  its  alleged  slipperiness  had  at  first  condemned  it,  and  hindered 
its  adoption.  He  believed  it  had  been  found  that  the  difficulties 
connected  with  slipperiness  had  arisen  from  the  inexperience  of  the 
drivers,  and  the  strangeness  of  the  new  pavement  to  the  horses.  In 
Holborn,  in  the  St.  Giles's  District,  the  wood  pavement  was  about 
to  be  replaced  with  asphalt  ;  and  Cheapside  also  had  an  asphalt 
pavement.  The  low  cost  of  cleaning,  and  the  little  delay  in  laying 
(an  asphalt  road  being  ready  for  use  in  twelve  hours,  while  the 
author  of  the  paper  stated  that  wood  pavement  required  a  week), 
were  important  points  in  favor  of  asphalt  over  wood. 

Mr.  Hugh  Mclntosh  said  that  he  had  not  had  sufficient  experi- 
ence to  give  a  decided  opinion  upon  the  question  in  dispute.  In 
his  district  the  authorities  were  only  just  beginning  the  use  of  wood. 
There  were  certainly  some  disadvantages  connected  with  asphalt, 
with  which  he  had  made  himself  acquainted  by  observation  and 
inquiry,  and  from  which  wood  pavement  was  entirely  free.  The 
little  experience  he  had  had  inclined  him  to  favor  wood  in  prefer- 
ence to  asphalt. 

Mr.  J.  Lovegrove  remarked  that  only  a  very  small  area  of  wood 
pavement  had  been  laid  in  his  district.  It  was  put  down  two  years 
ago  by  the  Improved  Wood  Pavement  Company,  and  it  had  proved 
a  successful  piece  of  work.  There  were  two  rails  passing  through 
the  centre  of  its  width,  and  blocks  of  Guernsey  granite,  well  dressed, 
were  placed  on  each  side  of  the  rails.  That  was  a  very  successful 
way  of  dealing  with  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  comparatively 
noiseless  pavement  opposite  a  public  building.  They  had  had  Val  de 
Travers  asphalt  at  first,  but  the  rails  and  the  asphalt  did  not  wear 
well  together.  Some  years  ago  he  had  made  some  experiments  with 
a  view  of  testing  the  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  macadamized  roads, 
and  the  result  was  that  he  advised  his  board  that  when  the  cost  was 
found  to  reach  2s.  per  square  yard,  it  was  time  to  get  rid  of  macadam 
and  lay  down  wood  and  stone  paving.  There  was  a  good  deal  of 
saving  with  wood  or  stone  pavement  in  the  matter  of  cartage,  by 
far  less  mud  being  made  than  on  macadamized  roads.  It  was  very 
important  that  all  the  information  obtainable  with  reference  to 
asphalt  paving,  pitching  and  wood,  should  be  laid  before  the  mem- 
bers, and  their  thanks  were  therefore  due  to  the  author  for  his 
efforts  in  that  direction. 

Cre0s0ting.  —  Mr.  A.  Giles,  M.  P.,  considered  that  the  author 
had  not  done  justice  to  the  subject  of  creosote  in  his  statement  when 
he  said  that  creosote  to  a  certain  extent  closed  the  fibres  of  the 
wood,  and  tended  to  produce  premature  internal  decay.  Mr.  Giles 
had  had  great  experience  in  creosoting,  and  this  was  the  first  time 


56  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

that  he  had  ever  heard  of  creosote  tending  to  promote  premature 
decay.  It  was  quite  true  that  the  pickling  process  was  worse  than 
useless,  but  if  the  blocks,  before  being  laid,  were  properly  creosoted 
they  would  last  much  longer  than  they  did  at  present.  It  appeared 
from  the  statistics  in  the  paper  that  the  actual  wear  was  only  0.144 
or  ^  inch  per  annum.  The  average  duration  of  wood  pavement 
was  six  or  seven  years,  and  as  the  blocks  were  six  inches  deep, 
they  only  lost  about  one-sixth  of  their  depth  in  the  whole  period  of 
their  life.  The  destruction  of  wood  pavement  was  caused,  not  so  much 
by  wear  as  decay,  for  every  one  must  have  noticed  that  when  wood 
pavement  was  being  taken  up,  a  great  deal  of  it  was  as  rotten  as 
touchwood.  That  would  not  occur  if  the  wood  were  properly  creo- 
soted before  being  laid.  He  was  sorry  the  author  had  not  gone 
back  to  the  early  days  of  wood  pavement  in  1842,  of  which  Mr. 
Giles  had  a  lively  recollection.  It  was  nonsense  to  say  that  the 
slipperiness  of  wood  pavement  was  only  felt  by  inexperienced  drivers, 
for  there  were  certain  states  of  the  atmosphere  when  the  pavement 
became  so  moist  and  greasy  as  to  render  it  absolutely  unsafe  for 
horses.  If  something  could  be  devised  to  prevent  that  slipperiness, 
a  great  benefit  would  be  conferred  upon  the  traveling  public. 

Mr.  S.  B.  Boulton  said  that  he  had  had  considerable  experience 
in  creosoting,  but  not  much  in  the  application  of  that  process  to 
wood  pavement.  It  would  appear  that  usually  the  paving  blocks 
were  merely  dipped  in  creosote,  and  perhaps  sometimes  in  a  mixture 
of  that  and  other  more  doubtful  substances.  Was  this  a  wise  course 
to  pursue?  It  was  well  known  how  much  the  creosoting  process  had 
been  improved  by  the  abandonment,  for  ordinary  engineering  pur- 
poses, many  years  ago,  of  the  mere  steeping  tank,  in  favor  of  the 
cylinder  process  by  vacuum  and  pressure.  In  one  instance  referred 
to  by  the  author,  that  of  the  King's  Road,  the  blocks  appeared  to 
have  been  prepared  by  the  latter  process.  In  this  case  only  seven 
pounds  of  creosote  per  cubic  foot  had  been  injected.  The  "resources 
of  civilization  were  not  exhausted,"  however,  by  the  injection  of  so 
small  a  quantity.  The  author  had  said  that  these  blocks  were, 
when  taken  up,  moist  internally,  although  it  did  not  appear  that  they 
were  unsound.  The  internal  moisture  could  only  have  resulted  from 
one  of  two  causes,  either  that  the  wood  was  not  dry  enough  at  the 
time  of  creosoting,  or  that  the  quantity  of  creosote  employed  was 
insufficient  to  prevent  the  subsequent  infiltration  of  water.  Many 
engineers  caused  to  be  injected  for  railway  sleepers  and  other  timber, 
10  pounds  and  12  pounds  of  creosote  per  cubic  foot.  Even  with 
these  quantities  the  injection  was  partially  superficial,  but  the 
creosote  completely  saturated  the  sap  wood  and  softer  parts  of  the 
timber,  filling  up  all  cracks  and  fissures,  whilst  the  ends  of  the  logs, 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  57 

for  some  inches  up,  were  usually  gorged  with  the  creosote.  Small 
pieces  of  timber  like  paving  blocks,  should,  if  prepared,  be  saturated 
with  creosote  like  the  extremities  of  a  sleeper.  When  timber  was 
unprepared  the  ends  of  a  log  absorbed  moisture  freely  ;  and  this 
must  be  the  case  more  especially  with  paving  blocks.  Moreover,  it 
was  not  pure  water  to  which  the  paving  block  was  exposed.  Ammo- 
niacal  products,  the  very  class  of  substances  which  were  used  in 
experimental  putrefying  pits  for  hastening  the  decay  of  timber,  were 
largely  present  in  the  moisture  of  the  London  streets.  It  spoke  well 
for  the  paving  blocks,  and  for  the  selection  of  the  wood  of  which 
they  had  been  made,  that,  unprepared,  or  slightly  prepared  as  they 
were,  they  had  lasted  as  well  as  they  had  done.  He  was  surprised 
to  hear  the  author  of  the  paper  express  the  opinion  that  creosoting, 
by  closing  the  fibres  of  the  wood,  tended  to  produce  premature 
internal  decay.  General  experience  in  this  and  other  countries 
during  the  last  forty-five  years  was  entirely  to  the  contrary.  There 
had  recently  been  exhibited  at  the  institution  a  large  collection  of 
specimens  of  croesoted  wood,  sent  by  various  railway  administra- 
tions and  from  other  sources,  and  which  had  been  placed  in  many 
different  kinds  of  soils.  These  specimens  of  ordinary  creosoted  fir 
timber  had  remained  sound  for  periods  varying  from  10  to  32  years, 
and  showed  conclusively  that  the  creosote,  which  had  filled  up  the 
outer  portion  of  the  fibres,  had  completely  protected  the  inner  por- 
tion of  the  wood  from  decay.  To  produce  such  results  it  was,  of 
course,  necessary  that  the  wood  should  be  deprived  of  moisture,  and 
that  the  creosote  should  be  of  a  suitable  kind.  The  wearing  away 
of  the  top  surface  of  the  blocks  appeared  to  be  rapid  ;  any  decay  of 
the  woody  fibre  would  doubtless  accelerate  this  abrasion.  Creosote 
had  not  only  a  preservative,  but  also  a  hardening  effect  upon  timber, 
and  if  thoroughly  injected  could  scarcely  fail  to  prolong  the  dura- 
tion of  paving  blocks.  As  regarded  the  kind  of  timber  to  be  used, 
he  thought  that  a  greater  variety  might  be  tried.  Gothenburgh  had 
been  spoken  of,  and  excellent  timber  could  be  procured  from  that 
port,  but  no  better  than  from  various  other  Swedish  ports,  or  from 
Memel,  Danzic,  or  Riga.  Beech  he  thought  would  do  good  service; 
it  absorbed  creosote  remarkably  well,  and  evidence  had  recently 
been  brought  forward  of  the  very  long  duration  of  creosoted  beech 
sleepers  on  the  Chemins  de  Fer  de  1'Ouest  in  France.  English  elm 
also  absorbed  creosote  readily,  which  was  not  the  case  with  the 
American  rock  elm.  He  had  recently  taken  three  pieces  of  ordinary 
fir  sleeper  wood,  three  of  English  elm,  and  three  of  American  elm, 
and  had  subjected  them  to  the  creosoting  process  under  nine  hours' 
pressure.  The  pieces  of  timber  were  all  cut  to  the  size  of  ordinary 
paving  blocks,  6  inches  by  6  inches  by  3  inches. 


58  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

The  results  were  : 

Average   Quantity  of  Creosote  Absorbed  per  Cubic  Foot. 

Lbs.  oz. 

Three  pieces  of  fir 22      i 

"          "          English  elm 27  13 

'  *          "          American   elm 4  10 

In  forests  through  which  he  had  traveled  in  Canada,  the  United 
States,  Russia  and  elsewhere,  he  had  noticed  a  great  waste  of  timber 
in  cutting  the  lengths  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  the  market.  If 
some  uniform  standard  of  size  for  paving  blocks  were  adopted  in 
this  country,  and  if  it  became  known  that  there  was  a  constant 
demand,  much  of  this  waste  timber  might  be  utilized  by  being  cut 
into  blocks,  either  in  the  forest  or  at  the  shipping  port,  whilst  they 
could  be  brought  here  as  convenient  stowage  for  vessels  at  a  very 
low  rate  of  freight.  He  could  remember  some  years  ago  when  his 
offices  were  in  King  William  Street,  near  London  Bridge,  the  effect 
produced  by  taking  up  the  granite  pavement  and  substituting  wood. 
No  words  can  describe  the  sense  of  relief  in  the  mitigation  of  the 
roar  of  a  mighty  traffic,  which  was  at  once  experienced  by  all  the 
busy  toilers  whose  work  had  to  be  carried  on  amidst  such  surround- 
ings. 

Mr.  E.  A.  Cowper  agreed  that  if  blocks  were  creosoted  at  all 
they  should  be  thoroughly  saturated  with  creosote.  It  had  been 
stated  that  the  author  had  not  dealt  with  London  streets  where  there 
was  a  very  heavy  traffic,  but  he  had  actually  given  the  first  cost  and 
maintenance  of  the  pavement  in  Ludgate  Hill,  Aldersgate  Street, 
Leadenhall  Street,  Fleet  Street,  and  Oxford  Street. 

Asphalt  Superior  to  Wood. — Mr.  G.  Allan  did  not  think  that 
wood  pavement  was  a  material  to  be  recommended  for  further  exten- 
sion in  the  metropolis.  About  fifteen  years  ago  his  attention  was 
first  directed  to  the  question  when  the  Val  de  Travers  asphalt  was 
brought  before  him.  He  first  had  it  experimented  upon  in  Bombay, 
where  it  was  used  to  pave  the  foot-paths  of  a  number  of  leading 
thoroughfares,  and  it  was  in  consequence  of  its  success  that  he 
became  the  founder  of  the  Val  de  Travers  Co.,  and  had  the  material 
introduced  for  the  first  time  in  London,  their  first  contract  being  for 
Cheapside.  When  that  contract  was  being  carried  out,  Portland 
cement  was  used  for  the  first  time  on  an  extensive  scale.  Lime  was 
proposed,  but  upon  his  recommendation  Portland  cement  was  sub- 
stituted in  the  contract,  at  an  increased  cost  to  the  company  of 
^£4,000.  No  doubt  it  was  to  the  excellence  of  that  concrete  founda- 
tion that  the  success  of  the  asphalt  was  due.  Wood  should  be 
regarded  as  simply  a  temporary  material  for  paving  ;  so  perishable 
an  article  should  not  be  thought  of  for  a  moment  for  permanent  use. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  59 

As  granite  sets  had  given  place  to  wood,  so  wood  would  have  to  give 
place  to  an  impervious  material,  as  asphalt,  or  some  future  improve- 
ment upon  it.  Both  frost  and  sunshine  had  a  very  destructive  action 
upon  wood,  or  any  material  of  an  absorbent  nature,  but  asphalt  had 
no  absorbent  qualities,  so  that  whatever  wet  might  fall  upon  it  was 
rapidly  dried  up  by  the  atmosphere.  The  reason  why  the  use  of 
asphalt  had  not  rapidly  extended  was  owing  to  the  inefficient  arrange- 
ments of  the  metropolis.  These  had  no  doubt  been  improved  of 
late  years,  but  not  sufficiently  to  justify  Vestries  and  other  authori- 
ties in  a  further  extension  of  asphalt.  Asphalt  pavement  should  be 
washed  every  morning  as  regularly  as  a  stable  or  kitchen  floor,  and 
sanded  if  necessary,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather.  If  that 
were  done,  he  believed  asphalt  would  be  everywhere  demanded.  In 
the  case  of  wood  sets  there  was  nearly  double  the  joint  area  of 
granite  sets,  and  the  joints  were  simply  receptacles  for  dirt,  mud, 
and  horse  droppings,  which,  in  dry  weather,  were  discharged  in  the 
form  of  dust.  In  asphalt  there  were  no  joints,  and  nothing  to  receive 
the  droppings.  All  the  dirt  lay  upon  the  surface,  ready  to  be  washed 
or  swept  away. 

Mr.  G.  H.  Stayton,  in  reply,  said  he  had  been  glad  to  hear  the 
various  points  discussed,  particularly  the  criticisms  of  Mr.  Isaacs  ; 
but  he  regretted  the  course  he  had  taken,  feeling  convinced  that  his 
conclusions  were  wrong,  especially  as  to  cost,  economy,  and  further 
extension.  With  regard  to  the  question  of  absorption,  he  would  only 
call  attention  to  a  block  which  had  been  four  or  five  years  in  actual  use 
in  King's  Road.  It  had  been  taken  up  from  the  centre  of  the  road, 
and  it  showed  clearly  that  the  absorption  had  been  practically  nil. 
His  experience  had  been  that  if  the  wood  was  sound  there  was  no 
fear  whatever  of  absorption  up  to  a  certain  point.  He  had  no  per- 
sonal knowledge  of  the  system  of  wood  pavement  referred  to  by  Mr. 
Lawford  as  having  been  laid  in  1841,  neither  had  he  ascertained  the 
cause  of  its  failure.  The  chief  object  of  the  paper  was  to  draw 
attention  to  the  modern  system,  as  from  its  unprecedented  extension 
within  the  last  few  years  more  advantage  might  be  gained  by  a  con- 
sideration of  its  merits  than  by  going  back  a  period  of  forty-three 
years.  The  remarks  of  Mr.  Weaver  were  valuable  from  his  great 
practical  experience  in  the  question,  and  considerable  weight  might 
be  attached  to  his  opinions  thereon.  It  was  satisfactory  to  note  that 
he  concurred  with  the  author  as  to  the  advantages  of  the  plain  sys- 
tem, and  the  necessity  for  great  care  in  the  use  of  wood,  but  a  few 
points  demanded  correction.  In  the  first  place  it  was  to  be  regretted 
that  Mr.  Weaver  should  have  fallen  into  the  error  of  remarking  that 


60  WOOD     PAVEMENTS. 

one  of  the  author's  statements  was  "  that  wood  pavement  was  laid 
down  better  and  cheaper  in  Chelsea  than  in  any  other  part  of  Lon- 
don." The  statements  advanced  in  the  paper  did  not  in  the  least 
justify  any  such  conclusion.  He  merely  asserted  that  the  Chelsea 
pavements  comprised  all  the  essentials  of  a  sound  and  economical 
pavement,  and  that  the  result  had  been  eminently  satisfactory  ;  but 
he  readily  admitted  that  the  Improved  Wood  Pavement  Company, 
Henson's  Company,  Messrs,  Mowlem  &  Company,  and  Messrs. 
Nowell  &  Robson,  had  also  carried  out  extremely  good  and  credit- 
able work.  The  net  cost  of  the  Chelsea  pavement  in  Fulham  Road 
was  rightly  stated  to  have  been  lod.  per  square  yard  more  than  the 
Kensington  part,  but  Mr.  Weaver  was  in  error  in  asserting  that 
the  former  took  forty  per  cent,  longer  time  to  execute.  The  Chelsea 
work  had  been  commenced  on  the  5th  of  September,  1881,  and  was 
completed,  and  the  road  reopened,  on  the  i5th  of  November,  thus 
giving  149  square  yards  per  diem  as  the  result,  whilst  the  Kensing- 
ton work  was  carried  on  in  two  sections  between  the  28th  of  August 
and  the  2ist  of  October,  giving  143  square  yards  per  diem  for  each 
section.  The  Kensington  pavement  had  a  large  proportion  of  old 
macadam  in  the  concrete,  and  the  system  of  blocking,  which  he 
considered  objectionable,  had  been  adopted  ;  and  there  was  little 
question  that  the  cost  would  eventually  be  as  great  as  that  of  the 
Chelsea  pavement.  The  wood-paving  works,  executed  in  Chelsea 
in  1879  by  the  board's  own  staff,  saved  the  ratepayers  ^3,1 60,  which 
fact  proved  that  system  might  be  attended  with  substantial  advan- 
tages. Mr.  Weaver's  remark  as  to  the  difficulty  of  organizing  an 
efficient  staff  was,  in  his  experience,  purely  imaginary.  The  con- 
clusion that  when  the  cost  of  macadam  exceeded  is.  6d.  per  square 
yard  per  annum  it  was  time  to  adopt  wood,  fully  bore  out  the 
author's  view,  inasmuch  as  the  2s.  zd.  mentioned  in  the  first  propo- 
sition included  M.  for  cleansing,  thus  leaving  is.  6d.  for  repairs  only. 
Notwithstanding  what  Mr.  Weaver  had  urged  against  the  use  of 
studs,  the  author's  practical  experience  satisfied  him  that  they  were 
preferable  to  laths,  as  he  had  repeatedly  seen  considerable  displace- 
ment of  blocks,  and  irregular  width  of  joints,  where  laths  had  been 
adopted.  The  statements  of  Mr.  Isaacs  were  fallacious  and  mis- 
leading, He  challenged  the  accuracy  of  the  author's  conclusions, 
but  failed  to  refute  them  by  adducing  a  single  reliable  fact  or  figure 
as  to  annual  cost  of  former  or  present  maintenance,  or  records  of 
traffic-weight,  in  justification  of  the  position  he  had  assumed.  In  a 
previous  discussion  in  1879,  on  street  carriageway  pavements,  he 
also  made  certain  statements  at  which  Mr.  Howarth  expressed  con- 
siderable surprise  when  correcting  them.  Mr.  Isaacs  must  either 
have  paid  no  attention  to  the  paper  and  tables  attached  thereto,  or 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  6 1 

he  must  have  neglected  to  formulate  statistics  as  to  weight  of  traffic 
and  cost  in  his  district,  otherwise  he  could  scarcely  have  made  state- 
ments which  had  no  practical  value.  Mr.  Isaacs  contended  that 
London  traffic,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  might  be  seen  in  the 
Holborn  district,  but  not  in  the  districts  of  Chelsea  or  Kensington. 
To  a  certain  extent  this  was  correct,  but  subject  to  qualification.  In 
Holborn  itself  the  daily  maximum  traffic-weight  per  yard  width  was 
approximately  1,100  tons,  in  Brompton  Road  it  was  648  tons,  and  in 
King's  Road  603  tons.  The  author  made  due  allowance  for  the 
variation  in  the  traffic-weight  in  preparing  the  traffic  table,  from 
which  it  might  be  assumed  that  the  annual  cost  of  the  wood-paving 
in  Holborn,  if  spread  over  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  would  be  2s. 
per  yard,  besides  cleansing  and  sanding  5^.,  or  a  total  of  2s.  $d.  Mr. 
Isaacs  has  made  no  attempt  to  supply  figures  upon  this  point,  and 
without  such  information  it  could  only  be  assumed  that  he  had  not 
given  full  attention  to  the  subject.  He  had  apparently  intended  to 
show  that  the  experience  of  Mr.  Weaver  and  the  author  was  such 
that  their  opinions  upon  wood  pavements  with  "London  traffic" 
ought  not  to  be  indorsed,  but  he  failed  to  adduce  any  serviceable 
information  in  opposition  to  those  opinions.  It  might,  therefore,  be 
assumed  that  he  had  taken  no  pains  to  make  himself  acquainted 
with  the  statistics  relating  to  his  experience,  which  would  certainly 
have  been  an  easy  matter  in  so  small  a  district  as  Holborn, 
which  had  but  fifteen  miles  of  streets  (of  which  three-fourths  of  a 
mile  were  macadamized,  and  16,000  square  yards  were  wood), 
whereas  in  Chelsea  and  Kensington  combined  there  were  108  miles 
of  streets,  of  which  forty-one  miles  were  macadamized,  and  217,000 
square  yards  were  wood.  But  apart  from  this,  the  paper  dealt  with 
pavements  subjected  to  "  London  traffic  "  in  its  broadest  sense. 
Several  instances  were  given  in  which  the  actual  life  of  block  had  ex- 
ceeded seven  years,  notwithstanding  that  the  daily  traffic-weight  was 
upwards  of  1,000  tons  per  yard  width.  Mr.  Isaacs  was  evidently 
under  a  misapprehension  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  item  of  2s.  2d. 
per  yard  in  the  first  proposition,  as  he  deducted  the  n</.  for  cleans- 
ing from  2s.  2d.,  instead  of  25.  io</.,  as  explained  previously,  and  in 
the  foregoing  reply  to  Mr.  Weaver's  remarks.  The  first  proposition 
was,  "  That  where  the  ascertained  annual  cost  of  maintaining  and 
cleansing  a  macadamized  carriageway  exceeds  2s.  2d.  per  square 
yard  *  *  *  the  substitution  of  wood  is  desirable." 
The  figures  (25.  2d.)  were  arrived  at  by  working  out  the  cost  of 
wood  pavement,  including  first  cost,  interest  on  loans,  repairs, 
renewals,  and  cleansing,  for  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner — viz. : 


62  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

s.  d. 

First  cost 10  6 

Repairs o  4 

Renewals  of  blocks  every  seven  years 12  8 

Interest  on  loans 2  5 


25  ii 


Per  annum i     8f 

Add  cleansing  and  sanding o    5 


Total 2     if 


If,  therefore,  the  author's  experience  was  of  any  practical  value,, 
he  was  satisfied  that  wood  was  undoubtedly  a  desirable  and  econom- 
ical pavement,  as  compared  with  macadam,  under  the  above-named 
circumstances.  The  observations  of  Mr.  Rich  respecting  traction 
confirmed  the  statement  in  the  paper  as  to  the  low  resistance  of 
wood  pavement  to  traction.  The  author  had  not  used  the  new  dyna- 
mometer belonging  to  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works,  but  as 
regarded  the  average  distance  that  a  horse  might  be  expected  to 
travel  without  falling,  Mr.  W.  Haywood,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  reported  in 
1874  that  on  granite  it  was  132  miles,  on  asphalt  191  miles,  and  on 
wood  446  miles,  whilst  the  injuries  to  horses  and  obstructions  to 
traffic  were  greatest  on  asphalt  and  least  on  wood.  Mr.  Matheson's 
remark  that  in  many  respects  asphalt  was  better  than  wood  coin- 
cided with  the  author's  views  which  also  explained  why  the  consid- 
eration of  asphalt  had  been  excluded  from  the  paper.  Within  the 
last  month  the  entire  carriageway  of  a  street  under  the  author's 
charge  had  been  paved  by  the  French  Asphalt  Company,  this  system 
of  pavement  having  been  adopted  principally  on  sanitary  grounds. 
The  author  did  not  agree  with  Mr.  Allan  that  wood  was  likely  to  be 
superseded  by  asphalt,  at  any  rate  in  the  principal  West  End 
thoroughfares,  unless  the  reputation  of  the  former  became  damaged 
in  consequence  of  their  neglect,  as  described  under  the  head  of  "  Man- 
agement." Obviously,  both  wood  and  asphalt  needed  constant  attention 
in  the  matter  of  washing,  cleansing  and  sanding  ;  but  however  suit- 
able asphalt  might  be  for  footways,  the  author  could  only  repeat, 
that  nothing  but  downright  neglect  in  the  management  of  wood  was 
likely  to  lead  to  its  extension,  on  account  of  slipperiness  and  the 
cruelty  to  horses  which  its  adoption  entailed.  Mr.  Giles  and  Mr. 
Boulton  made  some  remarks  pertinent  to  creosoting.  The  author  in 
no  way  desired  to  do  injustice  to  the  system,  his  experience  of  creo- 
soting piles  having  been  favorable  ;  but  however  desirable  in  theory 
it  might  be  to  creosote  wood-pavement  blocks,  his  experience  did 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 


not  convince  him  that  it  was  good  in  practice.  Some  few  years 
since  he  had  seen  wood  pavement  taken  up  at  Westminster,  where 
creosoted  blocks  had  been  used.  Many  of  the  blocks  were  inter- 
nally as  rotten  as  touchwood,  and  the  sappy  blocks  had  worn  down 
greatly  under  the  pressure  of  traffic.  It  was  difficult  to  see  that 
any  advantage  or  economy  could  be  gained  by  the  adoption  of  creo- 
sote, and  the  author  was  strongly  of  opinion  that  the  surface  of 
blocks  gorged  at  the  rate  of  10  or  12  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  would 
become  so  slippery,  and  the  jointing  so  unsatisfactory,  that  the  sys- 
tem would  create  dissatisfaction. 

CORRESPONDENCE. 

Mr.  G.  P.  Culverwell  approved  of  the  contour  of  the  carriage- 
way in  Fig.  2,  but  thought  that,  if  anything,  the  slopes  might  be 
reduced.  It  was  ordinarily  admitted  that  wood  was  a  most  slippery 
roadway,  and  thus  every  precaution  should  be  taken.  The  sharp 
camber  of  the  old  macadam  or  stone  pavement  was  too  often  fol- 
lowed, but  it  was  unsuitable,  and  placed  vehicles  at  a  disadvantage, 
especially  when  starting  from  the  curb.  The  cross-section  should 
be  represented  by  two  gradients,  say  of  i  in  40,  from  the  channels 
to  the  crown,  the  latter  being  slightly  eased  off.  In  level  roads 
the  cross-section  necessarily  varied  somewhat  in  order  to  drain  to 
the  gullies. 

FIG -5 


T^ 


SOUTHS 


c  P.  OSS-SECTION- 
FIG- 6 


ST- 


CROSS-SECTION-  is  GREAT  GEORGE  sr-  WESTMINSTER 


Figures  5  and  6  were  typical  sections,  and  had  been  carefully 
taken  recently.  The  east  and  south  ends  respectively  were  at  gul- 
lies, whilst  the  west  and  north  ends  were  midway  between  gullies, 
both  streets  being  level.  It  was  to  be  noted  that  steep  gradients 
transversely  were  especially  objectionable,  as  in  this  direction  the 
blocks  were  made  to  abut  close  one  to  the  other  without  any  joint, 
and  this  gave  little  foot-hold.  He  did  not  comprehend  the  remarks 
as  to  pitch-pine  producing  a  "jarring,  bumping  motion."  He  had 
examined  the  portion  of  that  pavement  in  King's  Road,  and  traveled 
over  it  in  various  vehicles  without  noticing  any  increase  of  bumping 
motion,  but  there  was  somewhat  greater  resonance  than  where  the 


64  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

wood  was  softer.  He  would  expect  to  find  the  coefficient  of  elas- 
ticity of  pitch-pine  greater  than  of  yellow  wood.  It  was  misleading 
to  say  that  creosoting  u  tends  to  produce  premature  internal  decay," 
although,  indeed,  perhaps  the  large  amount  of  inferior  work  done  in 
the  market  might  form  a  sufficient  excuse.  Creosoting  consisted  in 
driving  out  the  sap,  and  then  substituting  oil.  If  the  first  portion 
of  the  operation  was  not  effected,  the  oil  formed  merely  an  external 
coating,  preventing  the  sap  from  escaping,  and  "dry  rot "  set  up.  He, 
however,  thought  that  creosoting  was  unnecessary  and  even  in  some 
respects  undesirable  for  wood  paving.  Creosote  was  chiefly  of  use 
in  the  case  of  porous  woods  exposed  on  all  sides  to  the  weather,  in 
prolonging  the  ordinary  life  of  the  sapwood  and  wood  next  the  sap. 
It  did  not  render  the  sapwood  harder,  or  better  able  to  withstand 
abrasion  under  traffic  ;  and  it  was  almost  useless  to  creosote  the 
heart-wood  of  pitch-pine,  the  wood  being  already  so  full  of  resin 
that  little  oil  was  taken  in.  He  had  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  the 
money  expended  in  creosoting  would  be  better  laid  out  in  the  care- 
ful selection  of  heart-wood  timber  of  uniform  quality  ;  and  he 
thought  there  were  data  to  show  that  the  life  of  pitch-pine  pavement 
might,  without  undue  maintenance,  easily  reach  ten  to  twelve  years 
as  a  first-class  roadway  under  the  traffic  standard  of  750  tons  per 
yard  width  per  day.  The  depth  of  block  should  be  regulated  to 
some  extent  by  the  weight  of  traffic,  the  aim  being  that  the  block 
should  be  fairly  worn  out  by  abrasion  just  before  decay  from  weather 
or  other  causes  set  in.  With  pitch-pine,  even  5  inches  appeared 
unnecessarily  deep,  considering  that  the  maximum  annual  wear  in 
King's  Road  was  given  as  under  o.i  inch,  and  in  Oxford  Street 
blocks  (presumably  deal),  worn  as  thin  as  if  inch,  had  not  failed 
under  the  traffic. 

"  Top-dressing  "  was  important,  but  the  material  used  was  often 
unsuitable  and  too  much  was  put  on,  with  a  result  that,  upon  the 
first  rain,  the  roadway  was  almost  impassable  for  pedestrians,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Strand  at  Charing  Cross  when  last  repaired.  The 
material  should  be  fine-screened  sharp  gravel,  deposited  in  success- 
ive thin  layers.  Stones  of  the  size  of  walnuts  only  rolled  about,  the 
wood  not  presenting  a  sufficiently  hard  anvil  to  crush  them,  and 
the  material  did  not  work  its  way  into  the  wood  so  well  when  in  a 
thick  layer. 

The  opening  up  of  streets  for  repairs  to  gas  and  water  mains,  etc., 
was  most  objectionable,  and  peculiarly  so  in  the  case  of  wood  pave- 
ment, owing  to  the  time  necessary  for  the  proper  restoration  of  the 
latter.  It  was  to  be  regretted  that  a  comprehensive  scheme  had  not 
been  carried  out  whereby  to  provide  subway  accommodations  in  the 
metropolis  for  gas  and  water  pipes,  telegraph  and  telephone  wires 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  65 

etc.  Many  of  the  streets  were  much  too  narrow,  whilst  the  evil  daily 
increased,  and  thus  every  means  should  be  taken  to  supplement 
their  deficiencies. 

More  information  was  desirable  so  as  to  be  able  to  determine 
the  description  of  wood,  size  of  block,  and  width  of  joint  best 
adapted  to  varying  conditions  of  traffic  and  gradient.  He  thought 
i  to  20  too  steep  for  any  of  the  forms  of  wood-paving  at  present 
employed  ;  and  whenever  the  gradient  exceeded  i  in  40,  extra  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  cleansing  and  sanding,  especially  in  time 
of  frost. 

Sloane  Street  at  present  afforded  a  good  opportunity  for  exami- 
nation, as  the  paving  and  concrete  foundation  were  being  taken  up 
throughout  its  whole  length  for  a  width  of  about  16  feet,  in  connec- 
tion with  new  sewerage  works.  Such  examination  showed  that  the 
concrete  foundation  was  clean  and  sound,  and  there  was  no  appear- 
ance of  moisture  or  objectionable  matter  having  infiltrated.  The 
blocks  were  not  perceptibly  rounded  on  top,  and  were  in  good  condi- 
tion, showing  little  soakage,  and  the  cement  grout  bonded  to  them 
remarkably  well.  The  cement  joints  were  of  uniform  width,  and 
were  very  little  below  the  level  of  the  blocks.  The  blocks  were 
burred  about  -J-  inch  upon  the  sides  next  the  cement,  and  not  at  all 
at  the  ends  where  block  bore  against  block.  This  pointed  to  the 
conclusion  that  blocks  of  uniform  thickness,  laid  touching  each 
other  upon  all  four  sides,  and  without  any  cement  or  other  joint, 
would  form  a  most  durable  pavement,  whilst  upon  level  roads  it 
might  give  a  sufficient  foot-hold.  The  compression  set  up  would 
effectually  keep  the  blocks  in  place,  and  prevent  infiltration  of 
moisture.  Expansion  in  the  transverse  direction  of  the  street 
appeared  to  have  been  sufficiently  allowed  for,  as  the  blocks  bedded 
fairly  upon  the  concrete,  and  no  buckling  away  from  it  or  disturb- 
ance of  the  foot-pavements,  had  been  noticed.  That  the  compression 
in  the  longitudinal  direction  of  street  was  great  was  evidenced  by 
the  line  of  blocks  continually  cambering  toward  the  free  end.  This 
camber  averaged  about  one  inch  in  the  excavation  width  of  sixteen 
feet.  This  showed  the  advisability  of  laying  wood  pavements  in 
long  even  gradients  ;  and  where  the  vertical  curves  at  the  summit 
levels  were  sharp,  expansion  should  be  provided  for,  otherwise 
buckling,  followed  by  disintegration,  might  take  place.  Compression 
was  most  desirable  for  wood,  and  directly  added  to  the  life  of  the 
blocks,  whilst  further  preventing  objectionable  soakage.  Hence  it 
appeared  why  a  rigid  joint,  such  as  cement,  was  preferable  to  a 
mastic  one.  In  the  latter  case,  in  place  of  the  wood  being  com- 
pressed, the  substance  of  the  joint  itself  was  expelled,  and  part,  no 
doubt  (especially  if  the  transverse  expansion  had  not  been  allowed 


66  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

for),  found  its  way  underneath  the  blocks,  and  uneven  bedding, 
followed  by  disintegration,  resulted.  In  connection  with  this  matter 
of  compression  appeared  a  direct  objection  to  the  use  of  croesoted 
blocks,  as  these  did  not  expand,  and  compression  was  not  set  up,  and 
also  the  cement  grout  did  not  bond  to  them  as  well  as  to  plain  ones. 
This  explained  the  several  instances  noted  by  the  author  of  the  case 
with  which  croesoted  blocks  were  taken  up,  and  of  the  moisture 
having  been  found  between  them. 

He  was  informed  of  one  case — that  of  the  long-girder  bridge 
over  the  River  Foyle,  at  Londonderry — in  which  the  cement  grout 
had  never  set.  This  the  engineer  in  charge  attributed,  no  doubt 
correctly,  to  the  unremitting  vibration  night  and  day,  as  every  care 
had  been  taken  with  the  materials.  Henson's  patent  felt  bed  and 
joint  appeared  peculiarly  applicable  to  such  cases. 

In  conclusion,  he  congratulated  the  author  upon  having  at  an 
early  stage  adopted  an  excellent  and  economical  system  of  pave- 
ment, singularly  free  from  faults  or  objections,  and  one  that  bid 
fair,  with  minor  modifications  only,  to  be  largely  employed  in  the 
future. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Delano  regretted  that  the  author  should  have  per- 
petuated confusion  by  using  the  words  " asphalt"  "  asphaltic,"  when 
the  substances  he  referred  to  were  evidently  gas-tar  and  gas-tar- 
mastic — namely,  gas-tar  mixed  with  chalk  and  gravel.  Asphalt  was 
a  natural  bituminous  limestone  ;  asphalt-mastic  was  the  same,  mixed 
with  natural  bitumen,  and  when  mixed  with  grit  was  called  gritted 
asphaltic  mastic.*  He  understood  that  pine  sets  cut  from  Swedish 
yellow  deals  six  inches  deep,  three  inches  wide,  and  eight  to  eleven 
inches  long,  laid  on  a  Portland  cement  foundation  six  inches  thick, 
cost  ios.  6d.  per  square  yard,  exclusive  of  demolition  of  old  roads, 
carting  away  old  materials,  and  regulating  the  subsoil  to  a  proper 
contour.  This  price  was  low  and  probably  misleading  as  a  guide  to 
contractors'  prices  for  similar  work,  for  it  seemed  to  include  no 
general  expenses.  A  contractor  paid  rates  and  taxes,  interest  on 
money  disbursed,  cost  of  plant  and  tools,  rent,  employees,  which 
made  his  general  expenses  from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent.  Local 
boards,  who  were  their  own  contractors,  had  none  of  these  to  count, 
but  it  was  probable  that  their  general  expenses  really  exceeded  those 
of  a  contractor,  just  as  the  management  of  railways  by  the  State  cost 
more  than  that  of  private  companies.  The  standard  traffic  of  750 
tons  per  yard  width  per  diem  seemed  a  misleading  formula,  for  the 
wear  and  tear  of  a  road  did  not  depend  so  much  upon  the  weight 
passing  over  it  as  upon  the  speed  at  which  that  weight  traveled. 
There  was  also  the  important  element  of  width  of  tire,  the  state  of 

*  Minutes  of  Proceedings  Inst.  C.  E.,  vol.  ix,  p.  249. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  67 

the  atmosphere,  the  camber  of  the  road,  and  the  mode  of  traffic, 
cross,  heavy,  one  side  empty,  the  other  loaded,  etc.,  etc.  Take  the  new 
three-horse  Paris  omnibuses  carrying,  when  full,  forty-six  people 
including  driver  and  conductor,  weighing,  when  full,  5^  tons,  the 
width  of  the  wheel  tires  being  only  3^  inches,  running  at  a  speed  of 
seven  to  nine  miles  an  hour,  and  compare  the  same  weight  on  a 
4^-feet  wide  smooth  cast-iron  roller  dragged  at  i £  miles  an  hour. 
The  latter  improved  a  road,  the  former  rapidly  destroyed  it. 

The  author  having  alluded  to  the  wood  pavement  laid  down  by 
the  Improved  Wood  Company  in  Paris,  he  would  make  some 
remarks  on  that  interesting  work,  having  watched  it  daily  from  its 
beginning.  It  had  been  carried  out  in  September,  1881,  on  a  portion 
of  the  Boulevard  Poissonniere,  of  the  Rue  Montmatre,  and  a  cross- 
road formed  by  the  two.  The  gradient  of  the  former  was  nearly 
four  in  100.  It  had  been  laid  by  skilled  English  workmen,  with  the 
thickness  of  concrete  and  wood,  as  above  stated,  and  had  resisted,  up 
to  the  present,  some  of  the  heaviest  traffic  in  the  world.  It  was  fair 
to  state,  however,  that  the  winters  of  1881-2-3  na^  Deen  remarkably 
mild,  and  the  summers  of  1882-3  remarkably  cool.  In  March,  1884, 
the  first  repairs  had  been  effected,  and  now  (July,  1884),  although 
the  road  was  in  good  order,  some  of  the  sets  had  become  spongy, 
and  those  in  the  lines  of  traffic  were  rounded  at  the  edges.  On  a 
wet  day  the  wheels  of  the  omnibuses,  by  expressing  the  surface 
moisture,  left  seemingly  white  tracks  behind  them.  Now,  large 
surfaces  of  wood  pavement  were  being  laid  all  over  Paris,  chiefly  in 
substitution  of  macadam,  and  four  rival  contractors  were  in  the  field. 
The  price  for  all  is  as  near  alike  as  possible,  say  23  francs  the  square 
meter,  or  i4s.  \vd.  the  square  yard  ;  but  it  must  be  noted  that  the 
Paris  octroi  on  cement  was  12  francs  the  ton,  and  on  wood  7  francs 
50  cents  the  cubic  meter,  which  increased  the  cost  price  by  about 
i  franc  50  cents  the  square  meter,  or  say  is.  the  square  yard  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  London.  The  system  of  deferred  payments  had 
been  adopted  all  round  ;'the  prime  cost  of  23  francs  was  spread  over 
a  period  of  eighteen  years,  interest  and  compound  interest  being 
allowed  on  both  sides  at  the  rate  of  7  per  cent,  per  annum.  This 
gave  2  francs  35  cents  per  annum  for  first  cost,  to  which  was  added 
for  maintenance  2  francs  50  cents  per  square  meter  per  annum, 
equal  to  4  francs  85  cents  per  square  meter  per  annum  for  first  cost 
and  maintaining,  for  a  period  of  eighteen  years,  or  $s.  id.  per 
square  yard.  This  price  had  been  subsequently  increased  so  as 
to  include  demolition  of  old  roads,  but  to  a  slight  extent  only. 
When  M.  Leon  Say  was  Prefect  of  the  Seine,  in  1872,  he  repudiated 
the  system  of  deferred  payments,  stating  that  it  was  a  disguised 
loan,  and  that  a  municipality  could  always  borrow  money  for  work 


68  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

at  a  lower  rate  of  interest  than  from  a  contractor.  The  above  price 
was  about  what  the  author  considered  a  gotfd  contractor's  bargain, 
as  made  by  the  Improved  Wood  Company  in  1876,  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  Piccadilly  roadway  for  fifteen  years.  It  had  often  been 
remarked  that  the  materials  for  making  roads  were  few,  say  stone 
sets  or  flags,  wood,  macadam,  asphalt,  the  tesselated  pavement  laid 
in  concrete  by  the  Romans,  and  lava  flags,  as  in  Naples  and  Catania. 
Macadam  was  certainly  condemned  for  heavy  traffic  in  all  large 
towns  as  being  too  costly  in  maintenance  and  too  disagreeable  owing 
to  its  dust  and  mud,  choking  of  drains,  making  mud-banks  in  rivers, 
etc.,  and  the  tendency  of  the  day  was  to  substitute  for  it  a  noiseless 
pavement.  The  macadamized  road  of  the  Champs  Elysees,  Paris,  now 
nearly  all  replaced  by  wood,  cost  for  maintenance  17  francs  per  square 
meter  per  annum,  say  i$s.  8d.  per  square  yard  ;  that  of  the  Boule- 
vards, 6s.  8^.  per  square  yard.  The  proper  way  to  lay  wood  was  upon 
a  smooth  cement  concrete.  Concrete  was  being  used  in  Paris  now 
as  a  foundation  for  granite  sets,  as  in  Berlin  and  Vienna.  Wood 
might  answer  for  wide,  well- ventilated  thoroughfares,  but  to  use  it 
for  narrow  streets  was  anti-hygienic.  Wood  absorbed  the  urine  of 
horses,  and  the  diluted  filth  of  the  streets ;  horse-dung  clung  to  it, 
and  in  dry  weather  it  gave  rise  to  horse-dung  dust. 

For  traffic,  wood  was  excellent  for  the  first  two  or  three  years, 
but  as  soon  as  it  became  fibrous  and  worn,  like  an  old  tooth-brush,  it 
would  certainly  give  off  poisonous  emanations  under  a  hot  sun,  and 
remain  damp  in  winter.  It  lacked  that  first  quality  for  a  hygienic 
roadway  of  impermeability;  and  was  far  less  durable  than  asphalt; 
for  Cheapside,  laid  in  asphalt  in  1878,  had  never  been  renewed,  and 
its  repairs  had  never  stopped  the  traffic  for  one  minute  since  it  had 
been  laid,  whereas  wood  was  entirely  renewed  in  six  to  seven  years. 
It  might  be  safely  predicted  that  a  reaction  would  set  in  against  wood 
within  the  next  few  years.  The  Paris  engineers  stated  in  article  19  of 
their  specification  for  wood  pavements:  "  The  administration  reserves 
to  itself  the  faculty  of  suppressing  at  any  time  any  part  whatever  or 
even  the  whole  of  the  roads  paved  with  wood."  He  might  add  that 
the  cost  of  the  compressed  asphalt  pavement  now  being  laid  round  and 
inside  the  new  Hotel  des  Postes,  Paris(about  10,000  square  meters), con- 
sisting of  a  6-inch  Portland  cement  foundation  and  asphalt  2  inches 
thick  was  19  francs  50  cents  the  square  meter,  say  12.$-.  $d.  the  square 
yard,  and  the  yearly  maintenance  for  ten  years  2  francs  per  square 
meter,  or  is.  $d.  per  square  yard.  In  the  Rue  de  Richelieu  the  two 
systems  of  noiseless  roadways,  asphalt  and  wood,  had  been  laid  this 
year  side  by  side  ;  a  few  years  would  prove  which  of  the  two  pos- 
sessed most  durability. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  69 

Mr.  H.  Faija  said  that  as  it  seemed  to  be  admitted  that  the  life 
of  wood  pavement  was  dependent,  to  a  rather  important  extent,  on  the 
foundation  on  which  the  wood-blocks  were  laid,  he  agreed  with  the 
author  that  it  was  better  to  have  good,  clean  ballast  for  the  forma- 
tion of  the  concrete,  than  to  use  the  broken  granite  which  existed  in 
the  old  roadway,  from  which  it  would  be  hardly  possible  to  make  a 
good  concrete.  Even  after  the  granite  had  been  screened  it  was 
very  dirty,  and  all  the  holes  and  interstices,  which  for  the  production 
of  concrete  should  be  filled  with  cement,  were  filled  with  dirt.  Then, 
again,  the  screening  removed  not  only  the  dirt,  but  also  the  smaller 
pieces  of  stone,  leaving  only  the  large  pieces,  so  that  to  secure  a 
sound  concrete  a  much  larger  quantity  of  cement  would  have  to  be 
used  than  was  necessary  with  the  ballast.  But  as  this  extra  amount 
of  cement  was  not  used,  the  concrete  was  very  rough,  very  open, 
and  consequently  neither  strong  nor  sufficiently  smooth  to  receive 
the  blocks;  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  lay  a  surfacing  of  sand  and 
cement  on  which  to  set  the  blocks.  This  surfacing  must,  in  time, 
break  up  and  become  reduced  to  powder,  for  it  had  not  a  thickness 
sufficient  to  resist  hard  wear,  nor  was  it  homogeneous  with  the 
concrete  underneath.  The  author  had  stated  the  cost  of  the  concrete 
at  2s.  $\d.  per  square  yard,  and  it  was  therefore  evident  that  if  the 
concrete  had  to  be  relaid  or  materially  repaired  every  seven  years 
when  the  blocks  were  renewed,  the  maintenance  would  be  consid- 
erably increased  beyond  the  figures  given  in  the  paper  ;  and  might 
probably  account  for  the  high  cost  of  maintenance  which  exists  in  the 
Holborn  District.  In  fact,  the  concrete  should  be  regarded  as  the 
permanent  road  which  might  from  time  to  time  be  covered  with  wood 
or  other  material  more  suitable  than  itself  to  the  requirements  of  the 
traffic.  The  concrete  to  be  thus  permanent  should  be  one  homo- 
geneous mass  throughout,  without  surfacing  of  any  kind,  such  a 
concrete  as  resulted  from  a  well-proportioned  aggregate  properly 
manipulated,  and  he  therefore  was  certain  that  in  putting  a  well- 
made  concrete  under  the  wood  blocks,  the  author  had  acted  to  the 
best  advantage  for  his  Vestry. 

With  reference  to  the  number  of  experiments  of  the  cement 
which  he  had  made  for  the  author,  and  which  had  been  published 
in  their  entirety,  he  should  like  to  say  that  in  every  case  he  sent  his 
report  to  the  author  on  the  completion  of  the  seven  days'  test,  and 
that  therefore  the  extracts  from  these  reports,  which  were  given  in 
the  paper,  were  not  to  be  considered  as  defining  the  nature  of  the 
cement  as  shown  by  future  experiments,  but  simply  as  his  opinion 
of  the  cement  at  that  date.  No  doubt  a  finer-ground  cement  would 
have  been  preferable,  and  would  probably  have  enabled  the  author 
to  obtain  the  strength  he  required  with  the  larger  proportion  of 


7o  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

aggregate — viz.,  7  to  i  instead  of  the  5^  to  i  which  he  found  it 
necessary  to  use,  and  would  therefore  have  resulted  in  economy ; 
otherwise  the  cement  was  of  good  quality  and  well  suited  to  the 
purpose. 

Mr.  A.  Southam  observed  that  his  experience  as  Surveyor  for 
the  Wandsworth  Board  of  Works  at  Clapham,  enabled  him  to  con- 
firm the  author's  conclusions.  In  October,  1880,  the  High  Street 
Clapham  was  paved  with  wood  by  the  London  Tramways  Company 
and  the  Wandsworth  Board.  In  the  centre  of  the  road  were  two 
lines  of  tramway  ;  these  had  been  previously  paved  with  several 
kinds  of  asphalt,  and  all  had  failed  ;  the  margins  of  the  carriageway 
were  macadam.  The  tramway  was  paved  under  the  direction  of  the 
engineer  to  the  company,  with  plain  deal  blocks  grouted  with  cement; 
the  margins,  3,600  square  yards,  were  laid  by  the  Improved  Wood 
Paving  Company  for  the  Wandsworth  Board  with  blocks  dipped  in 
creosote  on  a  bed  of  6  inches  of  concrete,  composed  of  Thames  bal- 
last and  Portland  cement,  in  the  proportion  of  6  to  i,  at  a  cost  of 
us.  per  square  yard.  The  excavation  was  undertaken  by  the 
Wandsworth  Board  ;  the  value  of  the  macadam  somewhat  exceeded 
the  cost  of  breaking  up,  carting,  and  sifting  it  for  use  elsewhere. 
The  pavement  had  been  maintained  by  the  Improved  Wood  Com- 
pany free  of  cost  for  three  years,  when  they  expressed  their  willing- 
ness to  enter  into  a  contract  to  maintain  it  for  a  further  period  of 
fifteen  years  at  icd.  per  square  yard  per  annum,  and  to  leave  it  in 
good  order  at  the  end  of  that  term  ;  but  although  that  was  consid- 
ered a  small  sum  the  Board  had  thought  it  desirable  to  maintain  it 
themselves.  Both  the  pavement  laid  by  the  Improved  Wood  Paving 
Company  and  the  Tramway  Company  were  in  good  order,  no  repairs 
having  yet  been  required,  and  the  work  had  been  done  nearly  four 
years.  In  any  extension  of  wood-paving  he  would  ttse  plain  well- 
seasoned  yellow  deal  wood  blocks  grouted  with  Portland  cement, 
laid  on  concrete,  formed  of  the  old  macadam,  sifted  and  mixed  with 
Portland  cement.  He  considered  that  it  was  expedient  to  have 
large  works  executed  by  contract,  but  the  maintenance  should  be  under- 
taken by  the  parish  authorities  who  had  the  control  of  the  road. 

Mr.  G.  F.  White  expressed  his  satisfaction  with  the  paper, 
which  he  thought  was  a  valuable  supplement  to  those  of  Mr.  Deacon 
and  Mr.  Howarth.  Considerable  experience  had  been  gained  in 
the  intervening  five  years  as  to  the  endurance  of  wood  as  a  pave- 
ment. The  statistics  collected  by  the  author  should  help,  he 
thought,  to  set  at  rest  many  questions  on  which  opinions  were 
divided  some  years  back.  There  were  two  points  on  which  he 
desired  to  offer  a  few  remarks.  The  first  related  to  the  character  of 
the  foundation  to  be  used  under  the  wood.  The  second,  to  the 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  71 

mode  in  which  the  blocks  should  be  laid  with  reference  to  one  another. 
It  seemed  now  to  be  quite  agreed  that  the  indispensable  condition 
of  securing  a  good  and  lasting  paving  was  a  firm  and  unyielding 
foundation,  and  it  was  also  conceded  that  no  material  was  so  fit  for 
this  purpose  as  concrete  made  of  Portland  cement  and  gravel,  in  the 
proportion  of  i  part  of  cement  to  5  or  6  parts  of  gravel.  The  author 
seemed  to  be  of  opinion  that  a  thickness  of  6  inches  was  suf- 
ficient for  all  purposes.  Mr.  White  concurred  in  this  view  where  the 
soil  under  the  concrete  was  hard  and  undisturbed  ;  but  where  the 
ground  had  to  be  picked  up  to  provide  for  gas  or  water  pipes,  as 
was  so  generally  the  case,  he  thought  the  layer  of  concrete  should 
not  be  less  than  8  to  9  inches,  especially  in  thoroughfares  where  the 
traffic  was  heavy.  He  had  noticed  in  certain  cases,  and  especially 
in  Pall  Mall,  where  the  wood  paving  was  probably  in  a  worse  con- 
dition than  in  any  street  in  London,  that  the  excavation  for  the  con- 
crete base  had  been  very  unequal  in  depth,  the  sub-stratum  having 
in  some  cases  been  hardly  removed  at  all,  while  in  other  parts  there 
were  holes  12  and  13  inches  deep,  which  had  been  filled  up  with  hard 
rubbish  ;  and  over  this  surface  had  been  laid  a  bed  of  concrete, 
averaging  hardly  more  than  3  inches  in  thickness.  Such  a  mode  of 
proceeding  could  only  have  one  result,  which  had  been  predicted 
while  the  work  was  in  progress — namely,  the  speedy  breaking  up  of 
the  pavement,  with  the  consequent  necessity  of  replacing  it  within  a 
year  or  two.  As  a  matter  of  fact  that  was  what  happened.  The 
pavement  showed  signs  of  subsidence  almost  immediately  ;  and, 
though  the  middle  of  the  roadway  had  been  in  part  re-laid,  the  gen- 
erality of  the  work  was  in  as  bad  condition  as  ever.  The  author 
had  mentioned  two  cases  in  which  the  concrete  had  been  laid  12 
inches  thick,  and  though  in  the  one  case  (Regent  Street)  the  advan- 
tage had  been  nullified  by  the  inferior  quality  of  the  wooden  road 
laid  upon  it,  it  was  to  be  inferred  from  the  description  of  another 
example  in  Parliament  Street  that  the  life  of  the  wood  road  would, 
in  the  author's  estimation,  be  considerably  increased  by  the  extra 
solidity  of  the  deep  foundation.  From  a  careful  consideration  of 
the  whole  question,  Mr.  White  had  come  to  the  conclusion  (i)  that 
the  concrete  should  in  all  cases  have  a  thickness  sufficient  to  make 
it  act  as  a  beam  in  bridging  over  these  inequalities  of  excavation. 
(2)  That  the  life  of  the  wood  was  in  direct  proportion  to  the  immo- 
bility of  the  foundation,  which  must  be  deep  enough  to  resist  from 
the  first  the  hammering  action  of  horses'  hoofs  and  the  heavy  pres- 
sure of  wheels.  The  second  consideration  to  which  he  would  advert, 
was  the  way  in  which  the  blocks  should  be  laid  together  in  the  road- 
way, and  which  resolved  itself  practically  into  a  question  of  joints, 
or  no  joints.  Now  in  the  various  pavings  reported  on  by  the  author 


72  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

every  sort  of  jointing  seemed  to  have  been  tried,  and  though  he 
had  judiciously  abstained  from  dogmatically  asserting  his  opinion, 
lest  he  should  perchance  be  regarded  as  the  partisan  of  any  particu- 
lar system,  there  seemed  to  be  little  doubt  that  he  had  a  strong 
preference  for  laying  the  blocks  together  as  closely  as  they  could  be 
put,  and  filling  in  the  interstices  with  Portland  cement  grout.  In 
this  view  Mr.  White  heartily  concurred,  and  was  glad  to  find  it  was 
also  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Howarth.  He  believed  that  the  use  of 
grooves  or  wide  joints,  as  affording  foot-hold  for  horses,  was  of  very 
doubtful  advantage,  since,  when  the  paving  was  perfectly  dry  or 
thoroughly  wet,  the  foot-hold  was  complete,  even  with  a  jointless 
material  like  asphalt  ;  and  when  the  pavement  was  in  the  intermedi- 
ate state  of  slipperiness,  caused  by  frost  or  London  fog,  the  grooved 
paving  gave  no  more  support  to  horses  than  did  the  close  joint,  the 
reason  being  that  the  mud  filling  of  the  joints,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  rounded  edges  of  the  blocks,  was  rather  a  cause  than  a  pre- 
ventive of  slipperiness,  which  was  altogether  absent  in  the  case  of 
the  continuous  paving.  Another  argument  against  setting  the  blocks 
apart  was  the  fact  that  their  being  so  set  helped  the  abrasion  and 
rounding  of  their  arrises,  which  was  not  only  in  itself  an  element  of 
deterioration,  but  tended  after  a  time  to  create  a  sort  of  corduroy 
road,  on  which  the  wheels  bumped  from  one  block  to  another,  pro- 
ducing thereby  a  jar  very  detrimental  to  comfort  in  driving  over  it. 
If  any  proof  were  needed  of  the  correctness  of  this  statement,  one 
had  only  to  drive  in  Oxford  Street,  over  the  road  running  from  the 
Marble  Arch  eastward,  to  feel  the  difference  in  smoothness  and  com- 
fort of  the  close-jointed  pavement  in  comparison  with  the  grooved 
and  bumpy  road  which  succeeded  it  further  east. 

Mr.  White  had  been  told  by  omnibus  drivers,  who  were  excel- 
lent judges,  that  if  the  wide-jointed  pavements  were  universal  in 
London  streets,  there  would  not  be  a  driver  without  a  spinal  com- 
plaint at  the  end  of  a  twelvemonth.  As  regards  the  direction  in 
which  the  blocks  should  be  laid  in  relation  to  the  street,  there  would 
seem  to  be  no  doubt  that  it  should  be  transversely  to  its  length,  like 
ordinary  stone  paving.  In  the  paving  before  referred  to  in  Pall 
Mall,  the  blocks  had  for  some  inscrutable  reason  been  laid  diagon- 
ally, than  which  nothing  could  be  imagined  more  unsafe  for  horses, 
or  more  prejudicial  to  the  comfort  of  those  who  drove  over  them, 
especially  when  the  joints  were,  as  in  the  case  of  one  exhibited,  i£ 
inches  in  thickness.  This  particular  pavement  appeared  from  the 
author's  statement  to  have  been  constructed  at  a  cost  of  about  8.$-.  per 
square  yard,  about  one-half  the  price  at  which  most  other  roads  had 
been  laid.  It  was  in  his  knowledge  that  the  expense  of  making  it 
had  been  largely  subsidized  by  the  clubs  and  the  War  Office,  who 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  73 

had  not  taken  the  ordinary  precaution  of  employing  an  inspector  to 
watch  its  construction,  but  had  left  it  entirely  to  the  parochial 
authorities,  of  whose  parsimony  and  ignorance  it  remained  unhap- 
pily a  convincing  proof.  It  was  to  be  hoped  such  a  state  of  things 
would  not  easily  recur,  though  he  was  not  without  fear  that  the 
neighboring  roadway  of  Cockspur  Street  and  Charing  Cross,  quite 
recently  laid,  would  manifest  before  long  the  consequences  of  insuf- 
ficient foundation.  This  led  him  to  inquire  .whether  it  was  impos- 
sible to  institute  some  more  authoritative  control  than  at  present 
existed  over  the  construction  of  the  wood  roads  of  London.  The 
information  gathered  by  Mr.  Howarth  and  by  Mr.  Stayton  was  as 
ample  and  specific  as  would  have  been  collected  by  a  select  commit- 
tee sitting  on  the  question,  and  must  surely  therefore  be  sufficient 
as  a  guide  to  some  uniform  plan  for  the  execution  of  such  works. 
The  question  then  became  whether  such  uniformity  could  be 
enforced  on  the  different  parochial  bodies  of  the  metropolis.  The 
roadways  were  for  the  comfort  of  the  whole  community — not  of 
individual  parishes  ;  and  he  could  heartily  wish  that  such  a  body  as 
the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works,  which  seemed  to  have  most  things 
under  its  management,  could  actively  intervene  to  give  the  rate- 
payers the  benefit  of  the  investigations  which  had  been  made  on  the 
subject,  instead  of  leaving  them  any  longer  to  be  the  victims,  both 
in  pocket  and  in  comfort,  of  every  experimenter  who  might  have  a 
nostrum  to  recommend  or  a  patent  to  push. 

Mr.  Stayton,  in  reply  to  the  correspondence,  remarked  that  such 
observations  as  those  made  by  Mr.  Culverwell  were  extremely  prac- 
tical and  valuable.  He,  however,  felt  compelled  to  reassert  his- 
opinion  that  the  pitch-pine  blocks  in  King's  Road  created  an  unpleas- 
ant "jarring"  motion  when  driving  over  them.  He  had  many 
times  experienced  it,  and  on  a  recent  occasion  the  effect  was  very 
apparent.  Possibly  this  evil  could  be  mitigated  by  the  application 
of  Hen  son's  felt  bed  and  joint.  He  was  glad  that  Mr.  Culverwell 
had  so  clearly  expressed  his  reasons  for  declining  to  support  the 
creosote  theory,  feeling  convinced  that  the  extra  cost  of  creosoting 
could  be  better  expended  in  the  selection  of  the  timber.  He  con- 
curred in  Mr.  Delano's  objection  to  the  terms  "asphalt"  and 
"  asphaltic  "  as  applied  to  the  wood  pavement  laid  by  the  Asphaltic 
Wood  Pavement  Company  ;  obviously  the  British  asphalt  used  by 
them  was  a  manufactured  article,  and  the  name  might  lead  to  con- 
fusion. Where  the  word  "  asphaltic  "  appeared  in  tables,  it  merely 
referred  to  the  "Asphaltic"  Company's  system,  in  the  same  way 
that  "  Henson's"  or  the  "  Improved"  systems  had  been  referred  to. 
He  did  not  find  that  the  wood  in  Chelsea  "  gave  off  poisonous  eman- 
ations under  a  hot  sun,"  although  it  had  been  laid  5^  years  ;  this 


74  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

fact,  however,  could  be  accounted  for,  because  its  surface  was  thor- 
oughly watered  and  machine-swept  twice  a  week  during  the  sum- 
mer, independently  of  the  attention  described  under  the  heading  of 
management.  Any  neglect  of  this  service,  however,  would  soon 
create  the  unpleasant  condition  described.  He  assumed  that  it 
would  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  thickness  of  concrete  foundation 
referred  to  by  Mr.  White  (six  inches)  would  only  be  adopted  where 
the  soil  was  hard  and  undisturbed,  and  he  could  refer  to  numerous 
instances  in  the  Chelsea  pavements  where  the  thickness  was  from 
8  to  10  inches ;  in  fact,  a  depth  of  12  inches  had  been  laid  for  a  long 
distance  over  the  site  of  a  suspicious  gas  trench  in  Sloane  Street. 

WOOD    AND    ASPHALT    PAVEMENT    FOR    CITIES    AND    TOWNS.* 

From  the  experience  of  the  city  of  Liverpool  we  may  glean 
some  interesting  facts  respecting  the  use  of  wood  for  pavements. 

Durability  of  Wood  Pavement. — In  special  reports  by  the  engineer 
of  Liverpool,  Mr.  Clement  Dunscombe,  it  is  stated  that  it  would  not 
be  prudent  to  assume  a  longer  life  than  ten  years  for  wood,  under 
the  best  conditions,  and  of  the  superior  class  laid  down  in  that  city. 
In  streets  of  minor  traffic  this  may  be  exceeded,  but  in  those  of 
heavy  traffic  it  will  be  reduced. 

(The  life  of  natural-rock  asphalt  pavement  may  be  taken  as  at 
least  twelve  years).  In  one  street  paved  with  wood,  with  a  traffic  of 
94,000  tons  per  yard  of  width  per  annum,  the  wear  was  at  the  rate 
of  J-inch  per  annum.  In  another  street,  with  302,000  tons  per 
annum,  the  wear  was  0.58  inches.  The  wear  is  found  to  be  greater 
in  the  latter  years  of  the  life  of  wood  than  in  the  first  years.  Mr. 
Dunscombe  estimates  the  wear  within  tramway  tracks  at  about  one- 
third  more  than  the  remainder  of  a  roadway. 

Gravel  on  Wood  Pavement. — He  states  that  to  keep  a  wood 
pavement  in  good  condition  it  should  be  graveled.  "  The  fibres  of 
the  wood  ought  never  to  come  under  direct  wear,  but  the  surface 
should  be  kept  indurated  with  sharp  gravel." 

Objection  to  Wood  in  Tramway  Streets. — The  unequal  wear  of 
the  blocks  between  rails  of  tramways  he  considers  to  be  a  serious 
drawback  to  the  use  of  wood  in  tramway  streets.  "  Properly  laid 
tramways  ought  not  to  present  the  slightest  impediment  to  even  the 
narrowest-wheeled  traffic,  and  in  order  to  maintain  them  and  the 
track  in  proper  order  it  is  necessary  to  use  materials  for  paving  of 
the  most  durable  kind — such  as  the  toughest  syenite  sets — which 
shall  approach  most  closely  in  wear  to  that  of  steel  rails.  By  such 
a  selection  of  materials  only  can  the  repairs  to  the  pavement  due 

*  xv,  292. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  75 

to  the  unequal  wear  of  sets  and  rails  be  kept  at  a  minimum."  The 
life  of  steel  rails  in  Liverpool  tramways  is  about  sixteen  to  twenty 
years,  whilst  the  wear  of  the  hardest  wood  is  considerable.  When 
the  wood  has  worn  down  to  the  extent  of  half  an  inch  at  or  near  the 
rails,  it  should  be  relaid — at  least  that  portion  adjacent  to  and 
between  the  tracks,  as  it  endangers  the  wheels  of  light  vehicles  if 
it  is  not  done.  This  first  repair  will  come  where  traffic  is  heavy  in 
about  two  to  four  years  with  wood  pavements,  and  the  frequent 
tearing  up  of  the  street  for  repairs  shows  the  necessity  of  using  a 
more  durable  material. 

Cost  of  Maintenance. — The  cost  of  maintenance  of  wood  pave- 
ment is  placed  at  about  45  cents  per  yard  per  annum,  and  of  gravel- 
ing, watering,  and  scavenging  at  22  cents.  The  cost  of  maintenance 
of  syenite  sets  is  placed  on  the  contrary  at  4  cents,  and  of  watering 
and  scavenging  14  cents  per  square  yard  only. 

From  a  paper  by  Mr.  Park  Neville,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,*  we  gather 
additional  information  as  to  foreign  practice.  It  is  well  known 
that  wood  pavements  have  met  with  considerable  favor  abroad,  on 
account  of  their  freedom  from  noise  and  greater  safety  to  animals 
against  falling.  The  number  of  patents  on  wood  pavement  is  con- ' 
siderable,  eight  different  ones  being  described,  and  among  them 
some  of  those  with  which  we  are  familiar,  but  under  different  names. 

Asphalt  Wood  Pavement. — The  "  asphalt  wood  pavement  "  seems 
to  be  the  one  most  recently  adopted.  In  this  a  thorough  concrete 
foundation  is  made  and  accurately  shaped.  On  this  is  placed  a 
£-inch  of  asphalt  mastic,  on  which  croesoted  wood  blocks  are  placed, 
with  spaces  of  half  an  inch  between  rows,  and  the  blocks  carefully 
breaking  joint  in  the  rows.  The  lower  portion  of  the  spaces  for  2 
to  2^  inches  up  is  filled  with  melted  asphalt,  and  the  remainder  with 
cement  grout  with  gravel.  In  London  this  costs  $4  per  square  yard. 

Cleanliness  and  Durability. — Colonel  Hay  wood,  of  London,  says 
wood  can  be  kept  cleaner  than  asphalt  and  at  less  expense.  He 
estimates  the  life  there  at  six  to  nineteen  years,  or  ten  years  without 
repairs,  but  those  who  have  ridden  over  the  Piccadilly  will  have 
learned  that  in  less  time  than  this  they  become  anything  but  a 
smooth  pavement,  owing  to  the  unequal  wear  of  the  blocks. 

Mr.  Strachan  estimates  the  cost  of  scavenging  wood  at  one- 
sixth  that  of  macadam. 

While  one-third  of  a  load  of  mud  is  being  taken  on  an  average 
from  wood  pavements,  there  will  be  two  loads  taken  from  granite 
and  four  from  macadam. 

*A  Description  of  Wood  and  Asphalt  Pavement  for  Cities  and  Towns. 
Read  before  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  of  Ireland,  April,  1886. 


76  WOOD   PAVEMENTS. 

Foundation. — Mr.  O.  H.  Howard  argues  that  the  arch  form  of  a 
street  cannot  be  relied  upon  for  distributing  the  pressure,  and  he, 
with  others,  claims  that  the  wood  should  be  considered  merely  as  a 
surface  or  veneer  ;  the  sine  qua  non  for  wood  paving  is  a  thoroughly 
good  concrete  foundation,  and  this  is  the  real  basis  of  the  pavement. 
Great  stress  is  laid  upon  creosoting  and  upon  the  use  of  only  hard, 
tough  wood  ;  and  one  wood  pavement  on  a  bridge  is  mentioned  as 
having  outlasted  some  granite  blocks  on  the  same  bridge. 

In  reference  to  the  concrete  foundation,  Mr.  Deacon  is  quoted 
as  follows  :  "  The  ground  on  which  the  foundation  is  to  be  laid  is 
first  well  watered  ;  upon  this  is  then  scattered  a  layer  of  wet  broken 
stones,  on  which  is  spread  a  thin  stratum  of  cement  mortar,  and 
then  a  further  layer  of  broken  stones.  This  last  layer  is  then 
beaten  into  the  lower  layer  with  beaters  like  large  spades.  This  is 
followed  by  another  layer  of  mortar,  and  a  third  of  stones,  until  the 
required  thickness  is  attained,  when  the  surface  is  well  beaten  and 
finished  by  rubbing  with  the  beaters  to  the  proper  curvature  to 
receive  the  pavement.  The  cost  of  such  a  foundation  is  about  94 
cents  a  square  yard,  and  bituminous  mastic  foundations,  six  inches 
thick,  cost  in  Liverpool  88  cents  per  yard. 

Mr.  James  Newlands  consolidated  a  foundation  by  excavating 
eighteen  inches,  then  filling  up  to  the  grade  needed  for  placing 
granite  sets  upon  with  old  macadam  material  and  allowing  the  traffic 
to  come  upon  it  several  months.  The  surface  was  then  leveled,  an 
inch  of  pebbles  placed  on  it,  and  the  sets  placed  and  grouted. 

Mr.  Neville  gives  finally  his  own  conclusions : 

He  is  in  favor  of  wood  pavement,  on  the  understanding  that  it 
has  a  thoroughly  good  concrete  foundation,  but  this  should  be  pro- 
vided for  stone  or  asphalt  as  well. 

Stone  Pavement  for  Heavy  Traffic. — Where  there  is  very  heavy 
or  very  much  light  traffic  at  rapid  speed,  he  considers  stone  blocks 
"  from  the  igneous,  plutonic  and  metamorphic  rocks  or  the  syenite 
granites  (pure  granites  are  unfit)"  as  best.  These  should  be  thor- 
oughly dressed  so  as  to  enable  close  jointing,  and  should  be  laid  on 
a  bed  of  Portland  cement  concrete  mixed  six  to  one  with  its  top 
surfaced  with  cement  mortar,  and  allowed  to  set  ten  days  before  the 
paving  is  done.  It  should  be  protected  during  this  time  by  tarpau- 
lins from  heavy  rains  or  frost.  The  sets  should  be  wheeled  to  place 
on  planks  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  bed. 

The  sets  he  prefers  to  lay  close  or  with  not  more  than  f-inch 
joints,  which  after  careful  ramming  are  to  be  filled  with  fine  pebbles 
and  asphalt.  Such  work  he  estimates  to  cost  $3.12  per  yard,  and 
the  best  quality  of  wood  pavement  at  $2.94. 

Asphalt  mastic  pavements  and  compressed  asphalt  he  favors 
except  as  to  slipperiness. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  77 

Cost  of  Maintenance  of  Wood  Pavement  in  London. — The  annual 
maintenance  of  wood  pavement  is  given  on  the  authority  of  Colonel 
Haywood  as  costing  in  London  from  18  to  30  cents  per  yard,  of 
asphalt  the  same  range,  and  of  granite  from  6  to  19  cents.  The 
average  cost  per  year,  including  first  cost  and  maintenance,  for 
wood  40  to  6 1  cents,  for  asphalt  33  to  59  cents,  and  granite  25  to  69 
cents  per  yard. 

The  broken  stone  placed  annually  upon  the  macadam  streets  in 
Birmingham  varies  from  150  to  450  cubic  yards  per  mile  each  year. 
This  shows  how  unfit  this  class  of  pavements  is  for  streets  used  for 
heavy  traffic. 

NOTES   ON    KING'S   ROAD    WOOD    PAVEMENT,    LONDON.* 

These  works  were  executed  as  relief  works  in  the  early  spring 
of  1886,  and  done  without  intervention  of  a  contractor.  The  site 
is  between  Limerston  Street  and  Stanley  Bridge  ;  the  area  paved 
being  6,666  yards. 

Removal  of  Macadam. — The  road  was  previously  covered  with 
macadam  consisting  of  Guernsey  granite.  It  was  excavated  by 
means  of  steel  wedges  driven  through  the  crust  by  sledge-hammers. 
Then,  when  an  opening  was  made,  wedges  were  driven  under  the 
crust,  and  it  was  lifted  by  levers  in  pieces  twenty  feet  square.  These 
were  broken  to  pieces  by  hammers,  and  screened  through  an  inch 
sieve  and  then  through  a  J-inch  sieve  ;  1,440  cubic  yards  were  carted 
to  the  wharves  for  use  on  macadam  roads,  and  the  remainder  (about 
2,000  yards)  was  waste.  The  bottom  of  the  excavation  was  shaped 
so  as  to  give  the  curve  of  road. 

Foundation. — The  surface  thus  prepared  was  covered  with  six 
inches  of  concrete,  consisting  of  5^  parts  of  Thames  ballast  to  one 
part  of  carefully  tested  Portland  cement.  On  this  was  placed  £  inch 
of  fine  concrete,  three  parts  Thames  sand  to  one  of  cement,  laid  and 
floated  to  a  perfectly  smooth  surface.  The  method  of  laying  was  as 
follows  :  At  gulleys  (or  catch-basins),  which  are  6£  inches  below 
the  curb,  the  centre  of  the  road  was  made  at  such  a  height  that  \ 
inch  to  the  foot  fall  was  given  in  the  cross  section.  The  channels 
(or  gutters)  had  a  fall  of  i  in  150.  The  centre  line  of  the  crown  of 
the  road  was  made  level,  thus  giving  a  fall  in  the  cross  section  of  J- 
inch  to  the  foot  at  the  summits  of  the  channels.  A  narrow  strip  of 
concrete  was  placed  in  each  channel  and  strips  of  wood  laid  on  them 
and  nailed  to  pegs  at  the  exact  grade.  The  crown  of  road  had  a 
similar  strip  of  concrete  and  screeds  also  nailed.  The  templates 
were  very  accurately  made  to  the  curve  of  road,  faced  with  iron,  and 

*  Prepared  for  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record  by  George 
E.  Strachan,  A.  M.  I.  C.  E.,  Surveyor  of  Parish  of  Chelsea,      xvii,  36. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 


when  drawn  along  longitudinally  by  resting  on  the  screeds  they 
molded  the  fine  concrete  into  a  perfect  curve. 

The  concrete  was  allowed  to  dry  for  seven  days. 

Blocks. — The  blocks  were  yellow  deal,  9x5x3  inches.  Great 
care  was  exercised  in  rejecting  bad  blocks.  The  method  used  was 
as  follows  :  An  intelligent  wood-pavior  receives  the  blocks  and 
rejects  those  which  he  is  satisfied  are  bad,  dividing  those  he  passes 
into  two  lots  :  (a)  Those  that  are  without  flaw  or  defect ;  (b)  those 
which  have  only  slight  defect.  Blocks  rejected  by  him  are  not  exam- 
ined again.  The  lot  (b)  are  examined  by  the  Clerk  of  Works,  who 
rejects  such  as  he  pleases,  and  sorts  those  passed  into  (c)  those  he 
considers  fit,  and  (d}  those  which  are  doubtful.  The  lot  (d)  are 
examined  by  the  surveyor,  and  the  good  ones  passed.  The  paviors 
have  instructions  to  throw  out  any  defective  blocks  which  have 
escaped,  and  after  the  blocks  are  laid,  but  before  they  are  grouted, 
they  are  again  looked  over.  Even  then  bad  blocks  get  in.  A  fine 
of  IQS.  a  1,000  for  rejected  blocks  is  enforced.  At  first  the  con- 
tractor has  about  30  per  cent,  of  his  blocks  rejected,  but  he  soon 
learns  to  sort  over  the  blocks  before  sending  them.  On  this  work 
five  per  cent,  of  the  blocks  delivered  were  rejected  (i  in  20). 

The  blocks  are  separated  by  iron  studs,  as  described  in  previous 
articles.  They  are  laid  with  their  lengths  at  right  angles  to  the  traf- 
fic, and  the  studs  give  a  joint  transversely  of  three-eighths  of  an  inch. 

The  blocks  are  placed  on  the  concrete,  and  the  spaces  at  the 
joints  filled  in  with  cement  grout  (composed  of  3  sand  to  i  cement). 
Seven  days  are  allowed  for  drying.  The  surface  is  then  covered 
with  very  fine  pebbles  to  a  thickness  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  and  the 
traffic  is  turned  on.  The  pebbles  are  crushed  and  the  pieces  are 
driven  into  the  surface. 

One  inch  in  ten  feet  is  allowed  next  the  curbs  for  expansion. 

Cost. — The  actual  cost  was — 


Total. 

Per   square    yard. 

Labor        

£.        s.  d. 

I,  Oil         7    2 

S. 
3.03 

Blocks  

1,185     i?  4 

3-55 

Cement                    

406       3   5 

1.  21 

Cartage  

266     18  2 

.80 

Ballast  sand  and  pebbles.     .   . 

251     14  5 

•75 

Use  and  repair  of  tools  

108       9  9 

.32 

Studs..                     

34     13  6 

.14 

Incidental  expenses  

24     15   i 

.07 

Totals.  ,           

,£3,289  18  10 

9.87 

WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  79 

As  to  Life  of  Wood  Pavements. — Eight  years  under  traffics  of 
500  tons  per  yard  in  width  every  sixteen  hours.  (Blocks  not  creo- 
soted.) 

First  three  years  no  cost  for  maintenance.  Next  five  average 
cost  of  2d.  per  square  yard. 

The  wood  gets  bumpy  towards  the  seventh  year. 

Scavenging  wood  pavements  costs  in  King's  Road  one-sixteenth 
of  what  macadam  does. 

After  washing  and  after  rain  wood  pavements  have  a  percepti- 
ble, but  not  unpleasant,  odor. 

Wood  is  practically  noiseless. 

Creosoting  adds  to  the  life  of  wood,  but  its  cost  is  is.  6d.  per 
square  yard  in  addition  to  prices  given.  For  streets  with  traffic 
weights  under  500  tons  per  yard  width  in  sixteen  hours  it  does  not 
pay,  as  creosoted  and  plain  woods  become  bumpy  after  a  certain 
wear,  so  that  additional  life  is  then  an  annoyance. 

Hard  woods  are  not  good  for  wood  pavements.  The  surface 
gets  bumpy  sooner  than  with  soft  woods. 

Cement  joints  are  water-tight  and  wear  well. 

Openings  by  water  and  gas  companies  are  repaired  by  the 
Vestry.  The  excavation  is  rammed  and  watered,  the  concrete  is 
carefully  restored,  and  the  contour  preserved.  The  concrete  is  then 
allowed  to  dry  ;  then  the  space  is  repaved,  and  not  until  the  grout 
is  dried  is  the  traffic  allowed  over  it.  The  actual  cost  incurred  are 
refunded  by  the  companies  for  whom  the  work  is  done. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    PAVING    MATERIALS,  PARISH    OF    CHELSEA.* 

Specifications  for  the  Supply  and  Delivery  of  Wood  Blocks  for  Paving 
Portions  of  the  Streets  known  as  King's  Road  and  Pont  Street,  in 
the  Parish  of  Chelsea. 

i.  Blocks. — The  wood  blocks  are  to  be  the  best  improved 
Swedish  yellow  deal,  cut  from  Gothenburgh  thirds,  and  are  to  be  9 
inches  long,  3  inches  wide,  and  5  inches  deep.  Notwithstanding 
any  custom  of  trade,  or  any  meaning  usually  attached  to  the 
description  of  blocks  as  "  9  inches  long  and  5  inches  deep,"  the 
length  of  the  blocks  to  be  supplied  shall  be  such  that  when  any 
twelve  blocks  are  placed  end  to  end  in  a  straight  line,  so  as  to 
have  their  lengths  in  the  same  direction,  the  total  length  of  the 
twelve  blocks  shall  not  be  less  than  8  feet  9  inches,  and  when  any  8 
blocks  are  placed  in  an  upright  position,  with  their  sawn  faces  in  con- 
tact, the  height  of  the  eight  blocks  shall  not  be  less  than  3  feet  3 
inches.  With  the  approval  of  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry,  blocks  of 

*xvii,  68. 


8o  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

a  less  length  than  will  comply  with  the  above  requirement  may  be 
supplied,  but  in  such  a  case  the  contractor  is  to  supply  such  a  num- 
ber of  blocks  to  each  thousand,  at  his  own  cost  and  without  payment 
from  the  Vestry,  as  will  make  a  total  length  at  least  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  blocks  as  specified  ;  but  the  number  of  such  blocks  of 
a  less  length  shall  not  be  more  than  one-third  of  the  total  number 
supplied,  nor  shall  any  blocks  be  of  a  less  length  than  eight  inches. 
The  blocks  are  to  be  sound,  square,  properly  and  uniformly  cut,  free 
from  sap,  shakes,  warps,  large  or  dead  knots,  and  other  defects.  A 
sample  of  blocks  can  be  seen  at  the  office  of  the  Surveyor  to  the 
Vestry. 

2.  Surveyor  may  Inspect  Works  where  Blocks  are  Cut,  etc. — The 
Surveyor  to  the  Vestry,  or  other  person  authorized  by  him,  may,  at 
all  times  during  working  hours  enter  the  saw-mills,  wharf,  or  other 
place  of  the  contractor  where  the  blocks  are  being  cut,  to  examine 
the   same,   and   may   reject  any   deals   or   timber  from  which   the 
blocks  are  about  to  be  cut  which,  in  his  opinion,  are  unfit  for  the 
purposes  of  this  contract. 

3.  Number  of  Blocks  and  Delivery. — The  contractor  is  to  supply 
640,000  blocks,  of  which  340,000  are  to  be  supplied  to  King's  Road, 
from  Limerston  Street  to  Lot's  Road,  and  300,000  to  Pont  Street, 
but  the  Vestry  reserve  the  right  to  take  a  less  number,  or  to  require 
the  supply  of  a  greater  number.     The  blocks  are  to  be  delivered  on 
the  streets  named  at  any  part  thereof,  or  on  any  of  the  side  streets 
within  thirty  yards  of  such  streets,  and  are  to  be  stacked  in  such  a 
manner  and  at  such  times  and  places  as  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry 
shall  direct.     The  contractor  will  not  be  required  to  deliver  a  greater 
number  of  blocks  than  20,000  per  day. 

4.  Vestry  may  Obtain  other  Blocks  if  Contractor  fails  to  Deliver. — 
The  contractor  is  to  commence  the  delivery  of  the  blocks  within 
ten  days  after  the  receipt  of  an  order  in  writing  from  the  Surveyor 
to  the  Vestry,  and  is  to  proceed  with  such  delivery  in  such  quantities 
and  at  such  times  as  the  said  surveyor  shall  direct.     The  said  sur- 
veyor shall  have  power  to  suspend  the  delivery  of  the  blocks,  as  he 
thinks  fit,  on  giving  twenty-four  hours' notice  to  the  contractor,  with- 
out any  charges  which  may  arise  in  consequence,  being  chargeable 
to  the  Vestry. 

5.  Blocks  to  be  Approved  by  Surveyor. — Ihe  blocks  supplied  are 
to  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry,  and  any 
blocks  which  are  not  approved  by  him  are  to  be  removed  from  the 
works  within  six  hours.     The  blocks  are  not  to  be  considered  as 
approved  until  they  are  laid  in  the  streets  as  part  of  the  pavement 

*xvii,  68. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  8l 

and  grouted  in.  A  sum  of  ten  shillings  per  thousand  will  be 
deducted  from  the  payments  to  be  made  under  this  contract  to  the 
contractor  by  the  Vestry,  for  every  thousand  of  the  blocks  so  deliv- 
ered on  the  works  and  not  approved.  If  the  contractor  fails  to 
remove  the  blocks  not  approved  in  the  time  allowed,  the  Vestry  may 
do  so  at  his  expense. 

6.  Penalties  if  Works  Delayed  for  Want  of  Blocks.  — \i  the  works 
are  delayed  or  hindered  by  reason  of  the  non-delivery  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  blocks,  the  contractor  shall  pay  to  the  Vestry  the  sum  of 
;£io  per  day  or  part  of  a  day  they  are  so  delayed,  and  the  Vestry  or 
their  surveyor  may  obtain  blocks  from  any  person  they  think  fit, 
and  may  deduct  the  extra  cost  of  such  blocks  (if  any)  from  the  pay- 
ments to  be  made  to  the  contract  or  under  this  contract,  together  with 
the  sums  to  be  paid  by  him  to  the  Vestry  for  the  delay  of  the  works, 
or  may  recover  such  extra  cost  and  sums  from  him  or  his  sureties  as 
and  for  liquidated  damages,  as  they  deem  best. 

7.  Payment. — Payment  will  be  made  to  the  contractor  in  monthly 
installments  for  the  blocks  laid  in  the  street  as  part  of  the  pavement 
on  the  certificate  of  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry. 

8.  Surveyor's  Decision  to  be  Final. — The  decision  of  the  Surveyor 
to  the  Vestry  as  to  the  meaning  of  this  specification,  or  as  to  the 
quality  or  number  of  blocks  supplied  is  to  be  final  and  binding. 

GEORGE  R.  STRACHAN, 
February  24,  1886.  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry. 


Specifications  for  the  Supply  and  Delivery  of  Thames  Ballast,  Sand, 
and  Pea  Gravel  for  Paving  Portions  of  the  Streets  Known  as 
King's  Road  and  Pont  Street,  in  the  Parish  of  Chelsea. 

1.  Thames  Ballast.  —  The  Thames  ballast  is  to  be  taken  from  the 
River  Thames,  the  stones  are  to  be  regular  in  size,  and  not  to  exceed 
three  inches  in  any  dimension,  the  sand  clean  and  free  from  clay, 
mud  or  loam,  and  the  proportion  of  sand  to  stones  is  to  be  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry. 

2.  Sand. — The  sand  is  to  be  pit  sand  or  Thames  sand  of  the 
best   quality,  clean   and   sharp,  free   from  loam  or  clay,  and  when 
screened  through  a  sieve  of  400  meshes  to  the  square  inch  no  residue 
must  be  left. 

3.  Pea  Gravel. — The  pea  gravel  is  to  be  of  clean  water- worn 
stones,  not  exceeding  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  any  dimension. 

4.  Quantity. — The  contractor   is   to   supply  the    quantities   of 


82  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

materials  set  forth  in  the  form  of  tender  of  this  specification  ;  but 
the  Vestry  reserve  the  right  to  take  a  less  quantity  or  to  require  the 
supply  of  a  greater  quantity  of  any  or  all  of  them.  They  are  to  be 
delivered  on  the  streets  named,  at  any  part  thereof,  or  on  any  of  the 
side  streets  within  thirty  yards  of  such  streets,  at  such  times  and 
places  as  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry  shall  direct.  The  contractor 
will  not  be  required  to  deliver  more  than  100  cubic  yards  of  Thames 
ballast,  20  yards  of  sand,  or  10  yards  of  pea  gravel  per  day. 

5.  Delivery, — The  contractor  is  to  commence  delivery  within 
seven  days  after  the  receipt  of  an  order  in  writing  from  the  Surveyor, 
to  the  Vestry,  and  is  to  proceed  with  such  delivery  in  such  quantities, 
and  at  such  times  as  the  said  surveyor  shall  direct.     The  first  order 
will  be  given  on  the  loth  March  instant.     The  said   surveyor  shall 
have  power  to  suspend   the   delivery   as   he   thinks   fit,  on    giving 
twenty-four   hours'  notice  to  the   contractor,  without  any  charges 
which  may  arise  in  consequence,  being  chargeable  to  the  Vestry. 

6.  Materials  to  be  Approved  by  Surveyor. — The  materials  supplied 
are  to  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry,  and 
any  which  are  not  approved  by  him  are  to  be  removed  from  the 
works   within  six   hours.     If   the   contractor   fails   to   remove   the 
materials  not  approved  in  the  time  allowed,  the  Vestry  may  do  so  at 
his  expense. 

7.  Measurement  and  Approval. — The  contractor  is  to  bring  an 
invoice  with  each  delivery,  stating  the  quantity  and  nature  of  the 
materials  supplied,  which  is  to  be  left  with  the  person  appointed  by 
the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry  to  receive  such  materials.     If  the  con- 
tractor provides  such  invoice  in  duplicate,  the  person  so  appointed 
will  sign  and  return  it  to  the  carter,  if  the  quantity  and  nature  of  the 
materials  are  correctly  stated  thereon,  and  the  production  of  such 
duplicate  invoice,  so  signed,  will  be  accepted  by  the  Surveyor  to  the 
Vestry  as  proof  of  delivery  of  the  quantity  of  the  materials  signed 
for.     The  materials  supplied  may  be  measured  by  the  Surveyor  to 
the  Vestry,  or  any  person  whom  he   may   appoint,  in   the  cart   in 
which  it  is  brought  on  to  the  works,  or  on  the  ground,  as  he  thinks 
fit.     If  the  measurement  is  found  to  be  short  of  that  stated  on  the 
invoice,  the  cost  of  measurement  shall  be  paid  to  the  Vestry  by  the 
contractor.     The  materials  are  not  to  be  considered  as  approved 
until  they  are  used  on  the  works. 

Here  follow  the  same  clauses  as  to  delay,  payment,  etc.,  as  in  the 
specification  for  blocks. 

GEORGE  R.  STRACHAN,  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry. 
March  3,  1886. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  83 

Specification  for  the  Supply  and  Delivery  of  Portland  Cement,  for  Pav- 
ing Portions  of  the  Streets  Knmvn  as  King's  Road  and  Pont  Street, 
in  the  Parish  of  Chelsea. 

1.  Cement. — The  cement  is  to  be  the  best  Portland  cement,  very 
finely  ground,  weighing  112  pounds  to  an   imperial  striked  bushel, 
capable  of  sustaining  a  breaking  weight  of  420  pounds  per  square 
inch  of  sectional  breaking  area  after  seven  days  immersion  in  water. 
It  is  to  be  delivered  in  sacks  containing  two  bushels,  each  bushel 
weighing  112  pounds  net. 

2.  Quantity  and  Delivery. — The  contractor  is  to  supply  5,000 
sacks  of  cement,  of  which  2,660  are  to  be  supplied  to  King's  Road, 
from  Limerston  Street  to  Lot's  Road,  and  2,340  to  Pont  Street,  but 
the  Vestry  reserve  the  right  to  take  a  less  number  or  to  require  the 
supply  of  a  greater  number.     The  sacks  of  cement  are  to  be  deliv- 
ered on  the  streets  named  at  any  part  thereof,  or  on  any  of  the  side 
streets  within  thirty  yards  of  such  streets,  and  are  to  be  stacked  in 
such  manner  and  at  such  times  and  places  as  the  Surveyor  to  the 
Vestry  shall  direct.     The  contractor  will  be  required  to  deliver  the 
cement  in  lots  of  500  sacks  at  a  time,  and  to  complete  the  delivery 
of  each  lot  within  seven  days  after  the  order  is  given.     The  order 
for  the  first  lot  will  be  given  on  the  loth  March  inst.,  for  the  second 
lot  on  the  nth  March  inst.,  and  for  the  remaining  lots  at  intervals 
of  about  seven  days  from  the  nth  March  inst.     The  Surveyor  to  the 
Vestry  shall  have  power  to  increase  the  length  of  these  intervals,  or 
to  suspend  the  delivery  of  the  cement  on  giving  twenty-four  hours' 
notice  to  the  contractor,  as  he  thinks  fit,  without  any  charges  which 
may  arise  in  consequence,  being  chargeable  to  the  Vestry. 

3.  Testing  and  Approval. — When  each  lot  is  delivered,  the  Vestry 
will  watch  and  cover  it  at  their  own  expense  until  it  has  been  tested. 
The  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry  will  cause  samples  of  each  lot  to  be 
taken  and  tested  as  to  its  breaking  weight,  and  will  cause  other 
samples  of  each  lot  to  be  weighed  and  measured.     If  the  samples 
so  taken   comply  with  clause   i    of  this  specification,  the  lot  from 
which  they  were  taken  will  be  approved  by  the  Vestry  and  their  sur- 
veyor, and  the  expense  of  the  tests  and  measurements  will  be  borne 
by  the  Vestry.     If,  however,  they  fail  to  comply  with  clause  i  of  this 
specification,  the  lot  will  be  rejected  and  the  contractor  shall,  at  his 
own   expense,  remove   the   cement  within    forty-eight   hours   after 
notice  of  its  rejection  from  the  surveyor,  and  shall  pay  to  the  Vestry 
the   cost  incurred  by  them  in  testing  and  measuring   the   lots   so 
rejected.     If  the  contractor  fails  to  remove  such  cement  the  Vestry 
may  do  so  at  his  cost. 

4.  Sacks. — The   contractor   is   to   bring  an  invoice  with  each 
delivery  of  cement  stating  the  number  of  sacks  supplied  in  such 


84  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

delivery,  which  is  to  be  left  with  the  person  appointed  by  the  Sur- 
veyor to  the  Vestry  to  receive  the  cement.  If  the  contractor  pro- 
vides such  invoice  in  duplicate,  the  person  so  appointed  will  sign  and 
return  it  if  the  number  of  sacks  delivered  is  correctly  stated  thereon, 
and  the  production  of  such  duplicate  invoice  so  signed  will  be 
accepted  by  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry  as  proof  of  delivery  of  the 
number  of  sacks  of  cement  and  of  the  sacks  stated  thereon.  The 
empty  sacks  will  be  returned  to  the  contractor  on  the  works  as  the 
cement  is  used,  and  are  to  be  removed  and  signed  for  by  him  at  his 
own  cost  within  twenty-four  hours  after  notice  from  the  Surveyor  to 
the  Vestry.  The  Vestry  will  not  make  any  payment  for  the  use  of 
the  sacks,  but  will  pay  the  sum  of  one  shilling  for  every  sack  not 
returned  within  two  months  after  its  delivery  on  the  works. 

Here  follow  the  same  clauses  as  to  delay,  payment,  etc.,  as  in  the 
specification  for  blocks. 

GEORGE  R.  STRACHAN, 
March  3,  1886.  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry. 

SPECIFICATION     FOR     WOOD     PAVEMENT,     PARISH     OF     ST.     GEORGE, 

LONDON.* 

The  specification  given  below  is  one  of  the  best  recently  written 
for  wood  pavements  in  London.  Among  the  things  to  be  noted 
are  :  the  requirement  of  a  space  next  each  curb  to  allow  for  expan- 
sion ;  the  requirement  that  the  contractor  give  his  own  levels,  etc., 
and  making  him  responsible  for  their  accuracy  ;  the  six  months' 
maintenance  without  charge ;  the  repair  by  the  contractor  of  all 
openings  in  the  street,  at  a  fixed  price  per  yard  ;  the  sweeping  and 
cleaning  of  footways  during  progress  of  the  work  ;  and,  lastly,  that 
the  contractor  shall  be  present  "  whenever  required,  for  the  purpose 
of  measuring  and  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  work  performed,"  or 
else  that  he  shall  accept  the  measurement  then  made  by  the  surveyor. 

PARISH    OF    ST.    GEORGE,    HANOVER    SQUARE,    LONDON. 

Specification  for  Paving  with  Wood  the  Carriageways  of  Buckingham 
Palace   Road   (from   the    Grosvenor   Hotel  to   Ebury   Bridge), 
Conduit  Street,  Half -Moon  Street,  Pimlico  Road,  Queen  Street^ 
and  Wilton  Road. — George  Livingston,  Surveyor. 
i.  Description  of  Pavement  and  Mode  of  Laying. — The   pave- 
ment is  to  be  composed  of  creosoted   blocks,  cut   from   the   best 
yellow  deal  of  first  quality,  9  inches,  8  inches,  and  7  inches  long  by 
6  inches  deep  and  3  inches  wide  ;  no  block  to  be  more  than  9  inches 
nor  less  than  7   inches  in  length.     Each  block  to  be  cut  perfectly 

*xvii,  53.  This  pavement  mentioned  in  the  specification  was  laid  in 
two  contracts  at  prices  respectively  of  8^.  and  8^.  id.  per  yard. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  85 

true  in  size  and  shape.  The  -joints  to  be  filled  in  with  mastic 
asphalt  of  approved  quality  to  a  height  of  at  least  f  of  an  inch, 
measured  from  the  bottom  of  the  block,  the  rest  to  be  filled  in  with 
Portland  cement  grouting,  and  no  joint  to  be  more  than  £  of  an 
inch  in  width.  The  blocks  laid  transversely  are  to  be  only  laid  to 
within  3  inches  of  the  curb  on  each  side  of  the  street  (to  allow  for 
expansion),  the  space  so  left  to  be  filled  in  with  Portland  cement 
and  sand,  as  shall  be  directed,  but  subsequently  made  good  with 
blocks  if  necessary.  No  paving  to  be  commenced  on  any  portion 
of  the  foundation  until  six  clear  days  after  the  concrete  has  been 
laid. 

2.  Creosoted  Blocks. — The  whole  of  the  blocks  used  in  the  work 
to  be  creosoted  *  by  a  mixture  of  pure  creosote,  G.  oil,  and  pure  dis- 
tilled tar,  in  proper  proportions  as  shall  be  approved,  but  no  blocks 
shall  undergo  this  process  until  they  have  been  first  inspected  and 
approved  of  by  the  surveyor,  or  other  authorized  officer ;  and  the 
surveyor  shall  have  full  power,  notwithstanding  such  inspection,  to 
split  in  two  any  reasonable  number  of  blocks  selected  indiscrimi- 
nately from  those  brought  on  to  the  works,  and  to  reject  any  that  he 
may  consider  unfit  for  use  ;  the  same  to  be  at  once  removed  by  the 
contractor. 

3.  Excavation. — The  contractor  to  excavate  the  whole  of  the 
present   macadamized   roadways  to   the   required    depth  to   form 
foundation  and  pavement,  such  of  the  old  macadam  as  the  surveyor 
shall  approve,  if  sifted  and  mixed  with  Thames  ballast,  to  be  used 
for  concrete ;  the  surplus  to  be  the  property  of  the  contractor,  who 
shall  at  once  remove  the  same  at  his  own  cost. 

4.  Cement. — The  whole  of  the  cement  supplied  for  the  works 
must  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  from  an  approved  manufacturer, 
and   must  conform   to   the  usual  tests  to   the  satisfaction   of  the 
surveyor. 

5.  Concrete. — The  concrete  to  be  composed  of  Thames  ballast 
(mixed  with  such  of  the  old  macadam  and  in  such  proportions  as 
the  surveyor  shall  approve)  in  the  proportion  of  7  parts  by  measure 
of  hard  core  to  i  part  by  measure  of  cement ;  the  surface  to  be 
finished  off  to  a  smooth  face  with  concrete  i   inch  in  depth,  com- 
posed of  Thames  sand  and  Portland  cement,  in  the  proportions  of  3 
of  sand  to  i  of  cement,  and  to  be  laid  a  depth  of  not  less  than  6 
inches  over  the  whole  area  of  the  street  (from  curb  to  curb),  and  to 
be  composed  of  the  best  Portland  cement,  subject  in  every  respect 
to  the  approval  of  the  surveyor. 

*The  surveyor  considers  that  all  blocks  should  be  creosoted  under  a 
pressure  of  10  to  12  pounds  per  super  foot. 


86  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

6.  Old  Paving  Stone. — All  the  paving  stones  in  channels  and 
crossings,   etc.,  to   remain   the   property  of   the  Vestry,  at   whose 
expense  they  will  be  taken  up  and  removed. 

GENERAL    CONDITION. 

7.  Contractor   to  Provide    all   Materials,    Labor,    Tools,    etc. — 
The  contractor  shall  provide  all  materials,  labor,  tools,  tackle,  imple- 
ments, etc.,  for  the  proper  execution  of  the  works.     All  the  materials 
used  to  be  the  best  of  their  respective  kinds,  and  applied  in  the 
most   workmanlike   and   substantial   manner   possible,  and   to   the 
entire  satisfaction  of  the  surveyor.     The  blocks  shall  be  of  the  best 
yellow  deal,  of  first  quality,  and  the  surveyor  shall  have  full  power 
to  re'ject  any  materials  which  he  may  consider  unfit  to  be  used  in 
the  work. 

8.  Setting  Out. — The  contractor  to  set  out  and  keep  correct  the 
works  in  every  particular  according  to  directions  he  may   receive 
from  time  to  time,  and  to  be  responsible  for  the  correctness  of  the 
same  throughout  the  whole  term  of  the  contract. 

9.  Maintenance  After  Completion. — The  contractor  is  at  his  own 
expense,  and  without  charge  to  the  Vestry,  to  maintain  the  wood 
pavements,  together  with  their  foundations,  in  a   state  of   perfect 
repair  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry,  for  a  period 
of  six  months  from  the  date  of  completion  of  the  entire  work. 

10.  Maintenance  by  the    Vestry. — Should  the  Vestry  determine 
itself  to  maintain  and  repair  the  pavement  of  any  or  all  of  the  streets 
at  the  expiration  of  the  period  during  which  the  contractor  is  to 
keep  it  in  repair  free  of  charge,  he  is  to  be  bound,  if  so  required  by 
the  Vestry,  to  execute  such  repairs  as  he  may  be  called  upon  to  make 
at  a  price  per  superficial  yard  to  be  hereafter  agreed  upon.     In  all 
cases  the  old  materials  are  to  become  the  property  of  the  contractor, 
and  to  be  carted  away  by  him  without  expense  to  the  Vestry. 

11.  Repairs  Over  Gas,  Water  and  Other  Trenches. — The  con- 
tractor is,  during  the  term  of  his  contract,  and  at  any  time  after  its 
expiration,  if  so  required,  to  repair,  within  twenty-four  hours  after 
notice,  all  damage  done  to  the  pavement  by,  or  in  consequence  of, 
the  operations  of  gas  or  water  companies,  or  other  public  or  private 
bodies,  or  by  the  Vestry  itself,  and  he  is  to  do  the  work  for  such  com- 
panies, or  others,  at  a  price  per  superficial  yard  (to  be  stated  in  his 
tender)  measured   as  repaired.     All   old   materials  to   become  the 
property  of  the  contractor,  and  to   be  removed  by  him  at  his  own 
expense. 

12.  Cleaning  and  Sanding  Surface. — The  Vestry   is   to   be  at 
liberty  to  cleanse  the  pavement  with  water  or  by  sweeping  or  scrap- 
ing either  by  hand  or  by  machines  or  in  any  other  way  it  may  be 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  87 

deemed  expedient,  and  may  also  strew  the  surface  with  fine  sand, 
gravel  or  other  materials  with  a  view  to  prevent  slipperiness,  and 
the  contractor  is  to  have  no  claim  for  increased  wear  of  the  pavement 
should  it  result  from  the  usage  of  such  material,  or  from  any  mode 
adopted  for  cleaning  the  surface. 

13.  Fencing,    Watching  and  Lighting. — The   works  are   to   be 
carefully  fenced,  watched  and  lighted,  during  their  progress,  both 
by  day  and  night,  by  the  contractor  at  his  own  expense. 

14.  Footways  to  be  Kept  Clean. — The  contractor  is  to  sweep  and 
keep  clean  footways  from  ballast  or  any  other  material,  so  far  as 
may  be  practicable  during  the  execution  of  the  works. 

15.  Injury   to   Curbs   and   Footways. — Should   any   portion   of 
the   curb   stones   or  footway  pavements  be   injured   or   displaced 
by  the  contractor's  workmen,  they  are  to  be  reinstated  at  the  con- 
tractor's cost  by  the   workmen  of  the  Vestry,  and  such  cost  may 
be  deducted  from  any  sums  then  due  or  that  may  become  due  to 
the  contractor. 

1 6.  Injury  to  Sewer,  Gas  or  Water  Mains. — Should  any   injury 
be  done  either  to  the  sewers  or  their  appliances,  or  to  gas  or  water 
pipes  or  their  appliances,  by  the  contractor's  workmen,  the  damage 
is  to  be  made  good  at  the  contractor's  expense,  and  the  cost  thereof 
may  be  deducted  from  any  money  then  due,  or  that  may  become 
due  to  the  contractor. 

17.  Re  fixing    Gas  and    Water   Boxes  at  Altered  Levels. — The 
parish  workmen  will  raise  or  lower  as  may  be  required  all  water  or 
gas  boxes,  gully  grates,  man-hole  covers,  etc.,  to  suit  the  new  pave- 
ment at  the  expense  of  the  Vestry. 

1 8.  Dismissal  of  Workmen  for  Misconduct. — The  contractor  is 
to    dismiss   from    the    work    any    agents,    workmen,   laborers   or 
others  in  his  employ  for  misconduct,  if  required  to  do  so  by  the 
surveyor. 

19.  Services  of  Notices  Upon  Contractors. — All  notices  to  the 
contractor,  his  foreman   or  agents,  shall   be  deemed  to  be   duly 
served  upon  him  by  their  being  delivered  personally  to  any  of  his 
agents,  or  sent  by  post  to  his  offices  for  the  time  being;  and  notice 
of  such  offices  or  the  contractor's  address  is  to  be  left  with  the  Sur- 
veyor to  the  Vestry. 

20.  Works  to  be  Executed  as  the  Surveyor  Directs. — The  work  is 
to  be  executed  in  such  manner,  lengthwise  and   widthwise  of  the 
streets,  and  at  such  times  as  the  surveyor  may  direct,  and  be  carried 
on  in  such  a  way  as  will  least  impede  the  business  of  the  neighbor- 
hood and  the  public  traffic,  and  so  as  not  to  obstruct  or   endanger 
passengers,  animals,  or  vehicles  more  than  may  be  absolutely  nec- 
essary. 


88  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

2 1 .  Works  to  be  Done  to  the  Satisfaction  of  Surveyor, — All  work 
is  to  be  executed  and  maintained  throughout  the  contract  to  the  sat- 
isfaction of  the  Surveyor  to  the  Vestry  for  the  time  being,  whose 
directions  as  to  the  work  required  and  manner  of  performing  the 
work  are  to  be  abided  by;   and  his  opinion  on  all  points,  both  as 
regards  execution  and   maintenance,  and  as  to  the  moneys  due  to 
the  contractor,  shall  be  binding  final  and  conclusive. 

22.  Clerk  of  Works,  etc. — The  contractor  is  to  obey  the  instruc- 
tions given  him  by  the  Clerk  of  Works  to  the  Vestry,  the  surveyor's 
assistants,  or  other  competent  persons  who  may  be  deputed  by  the 
surveyor  to  superintend  any  part  of  the  works. 

23.  Contractor  to  Re-execute  Improper  Work. — If  any  part  of 
the  work  shall  at  any  time,  in  the  opinion  of  the  surveyor,  be  imper- 
fectly  executed,    the   contractor   is,   at   his  own   expense,   on   the 
requisition  in  writing  of  the  surveyor,  to  remove  the  same  and  replace 
it  with  good  sound  work  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  surveyor. 

24.  Upon  Neglect  to  Re-execute  Work. — Should  the  contractor, 
for  the  space  of  forty-eight  hours  after  receiving  instructions  from, 
the  surveyor,  neglect  or  refuse  to  execute  or  amend  any  of  the  work 
which  he  may  have  improperly  executed,  or  should  fail  to  complete 
the  work  in  time,  or  to  maintain  the  work  properly  during  the  con- 
tract term,  the  Vestry  shall  have   full   power  to  execute  the  work 
themselves,   by   their    own   workmen,   or   agents,   and   deduct   all 
expenses  incurred  from  any  moneys  that  may  be  due  or  become  due 
to  the  contractor,  or  may  recover  the  same  as  the  law  directs. 

25.  Contractor  Responsible  for  Accidents  and  Losses  to  the  Ves- 
try.—-The  contractor,  during  the  whole  term  of  his  contract,  shall 
be  held  responsible  for  all  accidents  which  may  take  place  by  reason 
of  his  works,  or  for  want  of   repair  in  the  pavement  which  he  may 
undertake  to  maintain,  whether  notice  of  need  of  repair  shall  have 
been  given  to  him  or  not ;   or  for  delay  in  executing  repairs  over 
openings  made  by  the  Vestry,  or  others,  after  due  notice  has  been 
given  to  him  to  make  such  repairs  ;   and   he   shall  indemnify  and 
hold  the  Vestry,  and  its  officers,  harmless  against  all  actions,  claims, 
compensations,  losses,  costs,  and  charges  whatsoever  in  respect  of 
the  paving  works,  or  anything  arising  out  of  the  contract.     And  the 
Vestry  shall  have  full  power  to  deduct  the  amount  of  such  costs, 
losses,  etc.,  accruing  or  arising  out  of  such  accidents  and  compensa- 
tion, or  from  any  defect  or  omission  on  the  part  of  the  contractor  in 
maintaining  the  pavement  in  a  suitable  condition,  or  performing  the 
repairs  in  a  suitable  manner,  and  the  Vestry^shall  further  have  power 
to   recover   such   amounts    from    the   contractor  as  the   law   may 
direct. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  89 

26.  Time  of  Completion. — The   contractor   is  to  complete  and 
finish   the  work   according  to  the  provisions  and  true  intent  and 
meaning  of  this  specification,  fit  and  ready  for  public  traffic,  within 
the  following  time  from  receiving  the  order  from  the  surveyor  to 
commence  the  work — viz.:  Buckingham  Palace  Road,  within  eight 
weeks  ;    Conduit   Street,   within   four   weeks ;    Half-Moon    Street, 
within   three   weeks  ;    Pimlico   Road,   within   four  weeks ;  Queen 
Street,  within  two  weeks  ;  and  Wilton   Road,  within  three  weeks. 
And  the  contractor  shall  forfeit  the  sum  of  £$  per  day  by  way  of 
liquidated  damages  for  any  delay  beyond  the  specified  time  and  the 
Vestry  may  deduct  the  same  from  any  moneys  that  may  be  then  due, 
or  become  due  to  the  contractor ;  but  should  the   contractor  be 
unable,  owing  to  bad  weather  or  other  unavoidable  causes,  to  pro- 
ceed with  the  works,  then  such  extension  of  time  may  be  granted  as 
the  surveyor  may  think  fit  and  reasonable. 

27.  Measurement  of  Work. — Upon  the  completion  of  the  work, 
the  contractor,  by  his  agent  or  foreman,  is  from  time  to  time,  when- 
ever so  required  by  the  surveyor,  to  attend  at  such  time  and  place 
as  shall  be  named  by  him  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  and  ascer- 
taining the  quantity  of  the  work  performed,  and  in  default  thereof, 
the  surveyor  shall  be  at  liberty  forthwith  to  measure  and  ascertain 
the  quantity  himself,  and  his  decision   as  to   the  quantity  shall  be 
final,  binding,  and  conclusive  upon  all  parties. 

28.  Payment. — No  payment  shall  be  made  by  the  Vestry  to  the 
contractor  for  any  work  done  or  materials  brought  upon  the  ground 
until  the  surveyor  shall  have  certified  in  writing  that  the  work  is 
completed  according  to  the  provisions  of  this  specification,  and  to 
his  entire  satisfaction. 

29.  Mode  of  Payment. — The  following  payments  will  be  made 
upon  the  work  when  certified  by  the  surveyor  :  90  per  cent,  of  the 
total  amount  one  month  after  the  completion  of  the  work,  the  re- 
maining 10  per  cent,  at  the  expiration  of  the  contract — namely,  six 
months  from  the  date  of  completion  of  the  work. 

30.  Sureties. — The  contractor  will  have  to  provide  sureties  (in 
such  amount  as  the  Vestry  may  consider  necessary)  for  the  due  ful- 
fillment of  the  contract. 

31.  Tender  not  Necessarily  Accepted. — The  Vestry  does  not  bind 
itself  to  accept  the  lowest  or  any  tender,  and  reserves  to  itself  the 
power  to  give  the  whole  or  any  portion  of  the  work  to  any  one  or 
more  parties  tendering,  and  to  increase  or  diminish  the  quantity  of 
pavement  to  be  executed  under  this  contract,  without  in  any  way 
invalidating  the  same. 

32.  The  contractor  may  tender  for  any  or  all  of  the  streets  men- 
tioned, and  state  in  his  tender  a  separate  price  per  yard  for  each 


90  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

street,  or  he  may  state  one  uniform  price  per  yard  at  which  he  is 
willing  to  undertake  any  or  all  of  them. 

NOTE. — The  works  will  be  commenced  and  proceeded  with  at 
once.  Each  street  to  be  completed  within  the  limit  of  the  time  sep- 
arately specified,  but  the  whole  of  the  streets  included  in  the  con- 
tract must  be  completed  within  a  period  of  nine  weeks  from  the  date 
of  the  commencement  of  any  one  of  them. 

The  contract  to  be  drawn  up  by  the  Parish  Solicitor  at  a  cost  to 
the  contractor  not  exceeding  ^£5. 

February,  1886. 

One  guinea  is  charged  for  this  specification  and  form  of  tender, 
which  will  be  returned  on  receipt  of  a  bona  fide  tender. 

Wood  vs.  Macadam  Pavement. — The  pavement  called  for  in 
these  specifications  is  the  " improved  wood"  pavement,  and  in 
October  following  their  issue,  Mr.  Livingston  reports  on  the  com- 
parative expense  attending  macadam  pavement  on  Piccadilly,  and 
proposed  improved  wood  pavement  on  Knightsbridge.  The  average 
amount  of  broken  granite  used  per  year  for  five  years  on  8,577 
square  yards  of  surface  was  1,090  tons,  costing  for  freight,  carting, 
labor,  rolling,  watchmen,  etc.,  2s.  $>\d.  per  square  yard  ;  and  for  the 
future  he  estimates  it  would  be  on  Knightsbridge  35-.  per  yard.* 

Cleansing  Macadam  in  Piccadilly  costs  an  average  of  tod.  per 
square  yard  per  annum.  For  Knightsbridge  it  would  be  two  cart- 
loads of  sweepings  a  day  in  dry  weather,  and  ten  loads  in  wet 
weather;  and  as  statistics  show  wet  days  for  one-half  the  year,  there 
would  be  1,872  loads  at  4*.  per  load,  or  a  cost  of  iid.  per  square 
yard  per  annum  on  8,218  yards.  For  wood,  the  estimate  is  3^,  per 
square  yard. 

Including  cleansing,  water,  maintenance,  and  a  proportional  part 
of  first  cost  and  interest  divided  over  fifteen  years,  he  estimates  a  sav- 
ing in  the  use  of  wood  over  macadam  of  about  is.  per  yard  per  year. 

The  wood  pavements  can  be  contracted  for  at  3.?.  per  square 
yard  for  first  cost  and  maintenance  for  fifteen  years. 

WOOD    PAVEMENTS    IN    PARIS.f 

In  continuation  of  the  series  of  pavement  articles  that  we  have 
published  in  previous  issues,  we  have  prepared  a  description  of  the 
present  standard  practice  of  paving  with  wood  and  asphalt  in  Paris. 

*  There  seems  to  be  a  discrepancy  in  this  estimate  as  compared  with 
a  subsequent  report  to  be  quoted  from  hereafter,  showing  a  much  greater 
quantity  of  mud  removed  from  Piccadilly,  and  a  much  greater  saving  than 
is  shown  by  the  estimate  here  made  for  Knightsbridge,  but  it  is  given  as 
reported. 

fxvii,  281. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  91 

The  regulations  and  specifications  for  the  work  are  translated 
from  the  Annales  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees,  and  will  follow  this  intro- 
ductory description  of  the  conditions  and  methods  of  work  in  1883, 
when  the  first  satisfactory  trial  of  wooden  blocks  was  made. 

We  abstract  below  the  paper  of  M.  A.  Laurent,  Ingenieur  des 
Fonts  et  Chaussees,  published  in  the  Genie  Civil,  at  that  time. 

Numerous  failures  in  the  use  of  wooden  pavements  on  public 
roads  has  discredited  them  in  Paris,  but  their  rapid  extension  and 
success  in  other  countries,  particularly  in  London,  under  very  heavy 
traffic,  has  compelled  the  attention  of  the  municipal  authorities. 

Objections  to  Macadam. — A  new  study  of  this  mode  of  surfacing 
was  demanded,  not  only  on  account  of  the  hindrance  occasioned  by 
the  constant  reballasting  of  the  more  frequented  macadamized  public 
ways,  and  by  their  frequent  renewals,  with  the  attendant  mud,  dust 
and  increased  resistance  to  traction  and  restriction  of  traffic,  but 
also  by  the  quantities  of  waste  material  stopping  the  drains  and 
endangering  public  health.  The  problem  of  replacing  these 
macadamized  pavements  in  the  great  thoroughfares  involved  its 
effect  upon  the  sewers. 

First  Contracts. — The  Administration  favorably  received  the 
proposals  of  the  London  Wood  Pavement  Company,  who  have  suc- 
cessively obtained  the  contracts  for  more  and  more  important  work. 
In  1 88 1  they  paved  their  first  section  on  a  small  portion  of  the 
Boulevard  Poissonniere  and  the  Rue  Montmartre;  in  1882,  and  early 
in  1883,  all  the  roadway  of  the  Avenue  des  Champs-Elysees,  from 
the  Place  de  la  Concorde  to  and  including  the  Rond-Point,  had  been 
relaid  with  wooden  pavement,  and  the  Municipal  Council  has  now 
just  accepted  their  proposition  to  pave  a  large  portion  of  six  of  the 
most  important  boulevards,  the  company  guaranteeing  its  work  for 
a  long  period,  and  the  city  in  turn  permitting  them  great  liberty  in 
the  execution  of  the  work  by  English  methods. 

The  Process.— The  process  of  the  Improved  Wood  Pavement 
Company  essentially  consists  in  the  construction,  on  a  perfectly  rigid 
foundation,  of  an  impermeable  surface  of  wooden  paving  blocks 
(pav6s)  thoroughly  solidified.  The  resistance  of  the  pavement  to 
the  action  of  the  wheels  depends  almost  entirely  on  the  foundation, 
the  wood  being  intended  solely  for  a  covering  to  protect  this  foun- 
dation, and  to  secure,  by  its  elasticity  and  the  perfect  uniformity  of 
its  upper  surface,  the  smoothest  possible  rolling  of  vehicles. 

Rigidity  of  foundation,  solidity  of  blocks,  and  impermeability  of 
the  surface  are  the  three  points  this  system  aims  to  secure. 

(i)  Foundation. — This  consists  of  a  bed  of  Portland  cement 
betono.i5  m.  (6  inches)  thick,  with  top  coat  of  cement  mortar 
about  o.oi  m.  (|-inch)  thick.  The  beton  is  thus  proportioned  :  A 


92  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

mixture  of  about  one-third  sand  and  two-thirds  gravel  is  put  in  a 
bottomless  box  containing  half  a  cubic  meter  (0.65)  cubic  yards), 
and  after  the  removal  of  the  box  100  kilograms  (220  pounds)  of 
cement  are  emptied  on  the  heap.  This  is  in  the  proportion,  by 
volume,  of  about  one-seventh  as  much  cement  as  there  is  sand  and 
gravel,  since  1,400  kilos  is  the  mean  weight  of  a  cubic  meter  of  good 
Portland  cement  heaped  loosely. 

The  sand  was  dredged  from  the  bed  of  the  Seine  and  the  gravel 
taken  from  pits  on  the  seashore.  The  cement  was  furnished  by  the 
manufactory  of  Demarle  &  Lonquety,  of  Boulogne-Sur-Mer. 

The  paving-blocks  should  have  a  uniform  thickness  and  not  be 
laid  on  the  bed  of  beton  until  after  it  has  set,  in  order  to  exactly  pre- 
serve the  curvature  of  the  surface  of  the  beton  required  for  the  con- 
vexity of  the  roadway.  In  the  Avenue  des  Champs  Elysees  the  con- 
vexity was  o.42m.  (i6£  inches)  in  a  width  of  27m.  (87  feet  7  inches), 
which  represents  a  mean  transverse  slope  of  a  little  more  than  3  in  100. 
This  convexity,  though  less  than  first  proposed  by  the  company, 
appears  to  be  a  little  excessive,  and  it  seems  that  for  a  road  under 
satisfactory  drainage  conditions  the  convexity  might  be  diminished; 
0.42111.  is  only  a  mean  convexity,  for,  on  account  of  the  small  longi- 
tudinal slope  of  the  avenue,  the  grade  of  the  gutters  is  not  parallel 
to  the  grade  of  the  street,  but  presents  a  series  of  short  slopes  from 
the  hydrants  to  the  sewer  openings,  consequently  the  convexity 
varies  from  0.39111.  (15^  inches)  at  the  hydrants  to  0.45111.  (17^ 
inches)  at  the  sewers. 

To  exactly  regulate  the  surface  of  the  beton  a  series  of  trans- 
verse profiles  were  defined  by  stakes  leveled  to  the  grade  of  the  top 
of  the  bed.  Along  each  profile  a  strip  of  stiff  beton  was  laid.  The 
top  of  this  beton  was  carefully  leveled  and  smoothed  and  received  a 
guide  rule,  laid  flat,  whose  thickness  exactly  corresponded  with  that 
of  the  beton  coating.  This  series  of  rules  thus  formed  a  set  of 
guides  close  together,  between  which  it  was  easy,  with  large  straight 
edges,  to  level  the  beton  to  the  required  surface.  The  first  leveling 
could  never  be  more  than  approximate,  the  surface  of  the  beton  nat- 
urally remaining  somewhat  rough.  The  exact  level  required,  as  fixed 
by  the  tops  of  the  rules,  was  secured  by  the  top  coat  of  cement-mortar 
which  filled  the  spaces  between  the  pebbles  and  made  an  exact  sur- 
face. This  mortar  was  first  composed  of  200  kilos  of  cement  to  a 
cubic  meter  of  sand  (336  pounds  to  the  cubic  yard),  but  this  propor- 
tion proving  too  small  it  was  increased  to  300  kilos.  It  was  always 
mixed  with  a  great  excess  of  water  so  as  to  penetrate  the  interstices 
of  the  gravel. 

(2)  Paving. — The  covering  is  formed  of  small  uniform  blocks, 
of  red  northern  fir,  0.15111.  (6  inches)  high,  o.22m.  (8}  inches)  long 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  93 

and  o.oSm.  (3^  inches)  wide.  These  are  set  close  lengthwise,  with 
joints,  transverse  to  the  street,  of  about  one  centimeter  (f-inch). 
The  blocks  are  sent,  ready  for  use,  from  England,  where  they  were 
cut  from  planks  of  the  ordinary  size,  o.oSm.  thick  by  0.2  2m.  wide. 
The  third  dimension,  taken  in  the  length  of  the  plank,  forms  the 
height  of  the  block,  so  that  in  position  the  fibres  of  the  wood 
are  placed  upright.  The  blocks  are  superficially  creosoted  after 
being  cut. 

When  the  foundation  has  set,  two  or  three  days  after  being  laid, 
the  blocks  are  set  by  the  pavers.  Owing  to  the  light  weight  of  the 
blocks  the  work  of  paving  is  very  rapid.  Between  crossings  the 
blocks  are  set  in  rows  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  street,  with 
their  longitudinal  joints  staggered  exactly  half  the  length  of  a  block. 
The  methods  used  at  crossings  to  avoid  a  continuous  joint  parallel 
to  the  traffic  are  analogous  to  those  used  in  stone  paving.  Special 
precautions  should  be  taken  to  insure  exact  spacing  and  regularity 
of  the  rows.  Before  commencing  a  new  row  a  strip,  whose  thick- 
ness is  exactly  that  of  the  required  joint,  is  set  edgewise  in  contact 
with  the  last  row  and  the  paver  has  only  to  set  the  adjacent  blocks 
in  contact  with  it. 

The  blocks  do  not  at  first  adhere  to  the  foundation  and  are 
easily  displaced  after  the  removal  of  the  strips,  and  to  maintain  them 
in  place,  as  soon  as  the  strips  are  taken  out  a  small  quantity  of  bitu- 
men is  poured  in  the  joints.  This  liquid  material  fills  the  small 
spaces  that  may  exist  under  the  blocks  and  partially  fills  the  joints, 
and  in  solidifying  effectually  seals  the  blocks. 

The  joints  are  then  filled  by  a  thin  grouting  of  neat  Portland 
cement,  distributed  by  the  aid  of  a  broom.  This  should  be 
done  at  least  twice  to  insure  perfect  filling  and  the  essential  im- 
permeability. 

The  pavement  cannot  be  opened  for  traffic  until  after  the  cement 
in  the  joints  has  completely  set,  for  which  a  delay  of  4  or  5  days  is 
considered  necessary.  During  this  interval  the  last  operation  is 
performed — viz.,  spreading  a  thin  layer  of  dry  sharp  sand  over  the 
surface.  The  company  claims  that  this  dressing,  crushed  under  the 
action  of  the  wheels,  incrusts  itself  in  the  wood  and  lends  resistance 
to  the  wearing  surface.  It  seems  more  probable  that  this  coating  is 
simply  to  protect  the  fresh  mortar  from  the  direct  action  of  the 
wheels,  for  it  can  be  maintained  but  a  very  short  time  on  a  traveled 
road,  and  is  soon  transformed  into  a  disagreeable  greasy  mud. 

Avenue  des  Champs  Elystes. — The  paving  of  the  Avenue  des 
Champs  Elysees  was  divided  into  two  parts,  in  the  first  of  which  the 
city  removed  the  old  pavement,  and  in  the  second  jhis  work  was  done 
by  the  company  under  a  special  contract. 


94  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

For  the  first  division,  the  removal  of  the  old  pavement  was  com- 
menced October  16,  1882  ;  first  beton  laid  October  20  ;  paving  com- 
menced October  24,  and  the  first  portion  of  the  roadway  opened 
November  2  ;  the  removal  of  old  paving  completed  December  10  ; 
the  last  beton  laid  December  12;  the  surfacing  finished  December 
14;  the  paving  finished  December  18,  and  the  road  completely  opened 
December  22. 

The  total  duration  of  work  for  14,000  sq.  m.  (18,340  square 
yards)  of  surface  was  67  days,  corresponding  to  an  average  progress 
of  210  sq.  m.  (252  square  yards)  per  diem.  Considerable  time  is 
necessary  for  the  various  successive  operations,  but  only  sufficient 
space  should  be  maintained  between  them  to  prevent  crowding  and 
interference  between  the  workmen.  These  operations  in  the  Avenue 
des  Champs  Elysees  have  always  required  15  days,  and  though  this 
time  might  be  somewhat  reduced  by  decreasing  the  length  of  a 
section  opened  up,  it  is  not  safe  to  estimate  for  any  shorter  time  ; 
15  days  therefore  constitutes  the  period  necessary  to  put  the  work 
in  operation  and  complete  one  section,  and  this  time  should  be 
deducted  from  the  total  time  to  find  the  true  daily  advance,  which 
would  become  in  the  above  instance  270  sq.  m.  (324  cubic  yards). 

The  second  part  of  the  work  commenced  March  29,  1883,  and 
required  62  days  for  a  surface  of  about  13,000  sq.  m.  (17,030  square 
yards),  giving  the  same  mean  daily  rate  of  210  sq.  m.  The  actual 
advance  was  275  sq.  m.  (330  square  yards)  per  diem,  and  would 
have  been  much  more  if  it  had  not  been  delayed  by  lack  of  mate- 
rials. The  conditions  were  much  more  favorable  on  account  of  the 
season,  the  absence  of  hindrances  attending  the  commencement  of 
work,  and  because  the  removal  of  the  old  pavement  was  done  by 
the  company,  so  that  but  for  lack  of  materials  an  advance  of  300 
sq.  m.  (360  square  yards)  would  have  been  made  daily. 

SPECIFICATIONS.* 

The  following  is  a  translation  of  the  specifications  and  the 
principal  instructions  and  conditions  embodied  in  the  "  Direction  of 
work  in  the  service  of  the  public  way,"  issued  to  contractors  in  1886 
by  the  Prefecture  of  the  Department  of  the  Seine  for  Roads  and 
Bridges. 

CHAPTER  i. — Regarding  Contracts. — ART.  i.  The  plan  com- 
prises the  transformation  to  a  wood  pavement  of  about  34,500 
square  meters,  (378,165  square  feet)  of  the  existing  road  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  Avenue  Champs  Elysees,  and  before  the  principal 
entrance  of  the  Palace  of  Industry,  the  city  reserving  the  right  to 
construct  the  stone  pavement  under  the  carriage  stations. 

*xviii,  1 6. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  95 


ARTICLE  2.  The  contract  Vill  be  an  unrestricted  one  to  which 
only  joint  stock  companies  having  their  headquarters  in  Paris  will 
be  admitted,  and  they  must  conduct  all  their  operations,  unless  it  be 
the  purchase  of  new  material,  in  French  territory,  and  present  satis- 
factory financial  guarantees  for  the  performance  of  their  obligations. 

At  least  one  month  before  the  award  of  the  contract  the  com- 
petitors must  file  with  the  Administration  the  necessary  securities,  a 
copy  of  their  charter,  a  detailed  statement  of  the  method  proposed 
for  the  preparation  of  the  paving  blocks  and  treatment  of  the  joints, 
and  specimens  of  the  paving  blocks  and  asphalt  intended  for  filling 
of  the  joints. 

ARTICLE  3.  During  the  continuation  of  his  bonds  the  con- 
tractor cannot,  without  the  express  authorization  of  the  Administra- 
tion, in  any  wise  modify  the  process  described,  nor  use  any  materials 
not  rigidly  conformable  to  the  specimens  exhibited. 

CHAPTER  II.  —  Foundation  and  Paving.  —  ART.  4.  The  demolition 
of  existing  roads  and  removal  of  old  material  shall  be  executed  by 
the  contractors  for  the  new  work. 

ARTICLES  5,  6  and  7  provide  for  the  removal  and  storage  of  the 
classified  materials  from  the  old  roads. 

ARTICLE  8.  The  contractor  must  do  all  necessary  grading 
and  prepare  the  road-bed  in  prescribed  form,  and  must  immediately 
remove  the  excavated  material  to  the  public  dumping  grounds. 

ARTICLE  9.  If  the  removal  of  the  total  thickness  of  the  old 
road  makes  a.  filling  necessary  to  attain  grade  for  the  bottom  of  the 
new  road,  no  other  material  can  be  used  than  the  ballast  of  the  old 
road,  which  must  be  free  from  earth,  turf,  etc.,  and  carefully  laid 
and  arranged. 

ARTICLE  10.  —  Foundation.  —  The  road-bed  having  been  prepared 
and  accurately  surfaced,  the  contractor  must  lay  a  bed  of  Portland 
cement  beton,  at  least  0.1501.  (5j-inch)  thick,  which  will  cover  all 
the  space  between  the  borders  of  the  sidewalks.  The  Administration 
reserves  the  privilege  of  requiring,  without  extra  payment,  a  thick- 
ness of  o.2om.  (8  inches)  where  the  soil  is  bad  or  the  sewers  have 
been  recently  placed. 

All  the  materials  used  in  the  composition  of  the  beton  must  be 
of  the  standard  quality  and  inspected  by  the  engineer  before  using. 
The  beton  will  be  composed  of  at  least  200  kilos  (441  pounds)  of 
Portland  cement  to  one  cubic  metre  (35.3  cu.  feet)  of  a  mixture 
two-thirds  pebbles  and  one-third  sand. 

The  contractor  will  proportion  the  materials  under  control  of  the 
Administration  by  means  of  standard  boxes  approved  by  the  engineer. 

The  contractor  may  mix  the  materials  by  any  convenient  pro- 
cess, but  the  mixture  must  be  first  intimately  effected  in  a  perfectl 


96  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

dry  state,  and  the  beton  must  be  perfectly  homogenous,  so  that  no 
pebbles  can  be  distinguished  in  the  mass  that  are  not  completely 
enveloped  in  mortar.  Sufficient  water  must  be  used  for  the  employ- 
ment of  the  beton  in  a  fluid  state.  The  material  will  not  be  emptied 
directly  on  the  earth,  but  on  a  portion  of  beton  already  in  place, 
whence  it  can  gently  flow  to  the  place  it  is  to  occupy,  where  it  will 
be  lightly  rammed  with  a  shovel. 

The  surface  of  the  beton  must  be  perfectly  smoothed  by  a 
straight  edge  following  the  prescribed  curve.  An  immediate  addi- 
tion may  be  made,  if  necessary,  of  a  thin  coat  of  mortar  to  give  a 
final  surface  that  is  absolutely  uniform,  without  hollows,  cavities,  or 
any  depressions  whatever. 

ARTICLE  n. — Paving. — When  the  above-described  foundation 
is  sufficiently  dry,  the  contractor  must  establish  upon  it  a  surface  of 
wooden  paving  blocks  conformable  to  the  given  samples  and  laid 
by  the  prescribed  method. 

T\\Z paving  blocks  shall  be  of  first  quality  Swedish  red  fir,  made 
by  sawing  planks  perpendicular  to  their  length  so  as  to  give  a  length 
of  o.22m.  to  0.23111.  (8f  inches  to  9  inches),  a  width  of  o.y6m.  to 
o.ySm.  (3  inches  to  3-J-  inches),  and  a  height  of  0.15111.  (5-J  inches). 
The  blocks  must  be  homogeneous  and  free  from  knots  for  a  distance 
of  o.5m  (ij  inch)  from  the  upper  surface.  Sound  sap-wood  only 
will  be  accepted,  of  varieties  approved  by  the  Administration.  The 
angles  must  be  sharp  and  the  faces  perfectly  square.  No  deficien- 
cies will  be  tolerated  in  this  respect  nor  in  the  sawed  height,  which 
must  be  precisely  o. ism.  (5^  inches). 

The  blocks  must  receive  in  the  contractor's  shops  a  preparation 
protecting  them  as  much  as  possible  from  dampness. 

The  Administration  reserves  the  privilege  of  exercising  in  the 
shops  a  special  surveillance  to  insure  the  original  quality  of  the 
blocks  and  the  proper  application  of  the  different  preparations 
required  in  the  process  proposed  and  agreed  to  by  the  contrac- 
tor. These  applications  must  all  be  made  in  the  shops  and 
never  in  the  yards,  where  the  blocks  must  arrive  ready  for  use  in 
the  work. 

The  blocks  must  be  set  on  end  in  regular  rows  normal  to  the 
axis  of  the  road.  The  joints  in  adjacent  rows  must  be  staggered 
and  blocks  of  o.nm.  (4!  inches)  may  be  used  to  attain  this  require- 
ment. The  blocks  in  each  row  must  be  set  in  close  contact,  but 
joints  of  from  o.ooSm,  to  o.oiom.  (T67  inch  to  -f\  inch)  must  be  left 
between  consecutive  rows. 

At  the  crossways  the  rows  shall  be  arranged  as  directed  by  the 
engineer  so  that  no  continuous  joint  shall  occur  in  the  direction 
habitually  followed  by  the  carriages. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  97 

The  surface  of  the  pavement  must  be  perfectly  regular,  and 
present  the  exact  longitudinal  slope  and  transverse  curvature 
required. 

The  joints  must  be  dressed  with  a  mortar  containing  at  least 
one  part  of  Portland  cement  to  three  parts  of  sand. 

The  hold  of  the  blocks  before  the  joints  are  filled  must  be 
assured,  either  by  a  wash  of  some  material  like  coal-tar,  filling  the 
bottoms  of  the  joints,  or  by  some  other  process  previously  agreed  to 
by  the  Administration. 

Whatever  system  may  be  adopted,  all  the  joints  must  be  exactly 
filled  and  present  no  cavities. 

A  space  of  a  maximum  width  of  0.035111.  (if  inches)  will, 
however,  be  left  along  the  edges  to  allow  play  for  the  swelling  of 
the  wood. 

After  the  completion  of  the  pavement  the  contractor  can,  if  he 
thinks  it  expedient,  spread,  at  his  own  expense,  a  bed  of  fine  gravel 
over  the  surface  ;  this  gravel  will  be  swept  off  at  the  expense  of  the 
Administration  as  soon  as  its  engineer  deems  it  requisite  for  the 
interest  of  the  traffic,  and  may  be  replaced  by  the  contractor  at  his 
own  expense  under  the  same  conditions  and  as  many  times  as  he 
thinks  useful. 

ARTICLE  12. —  Time  allowed. — The  work  of  paving  will  not  be 
undertaken  until  after  the  completion  of  all  sewers  and  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  subterranean  canals  of  every  nature.  The  work  will  be 
commenced  at  a  date  fixed  by  the  engineer,  and  must  be  completed 
within  a  maximum  period  of  one  day  for  every  450  square  meters 
(4.842  square  feet),  and  fifteen  days  more  for  the  putting  in  train  of 
operations — i.e.,  the  time  necessary  for  removing  a  portion  of  the 
road  from  the  moment  it  is  occupied  for  demolition  until  it  is 
re-opened  for  traffic.  This  period  is  rigidly  fixed,  and  will  only  be 
extended  in  case  of  continuous  freezing  weather ;  for  every  addi- 
tional day  consumed  in  the  work  100  francs  will  be  retained  from 
the  contract  price,  unless  the  contractor  can  present  sufficient  excuse. 

The  work  shall  be  simultaneously  executed  over  only  about 
one-half  of  the  width  of  the  roadway  in  such  a  manner  as  to  preserve 
the  other  half  free  for  traffic. 

The  portions  of  the  read  simultaneously  withdrawn  from  traffic 
shall  not  exceed  300  m.  (9,842  feet)  for  each  station.  The  number 
of  stations  will  be  fixed  by  the  Administration. 

At  crossings  the  work  must  be  conducted  so  as  not  to  interrupt 
the  traffic  on  the  transverse  streets,  which  must  not  be  barricaded 
except  in  case  of  absolute  necessity,  and  with  the  assent  of  the 
Administration. 


98  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

CHAPTER  III.  Maintenance  and  Delivery. — ART.  13.  The 
contractor  will  be  charged  with  the  duty  of  maintaining  the  wood 
pavement  for  eighteen  years  from  the  ist  of  April  following  the 
completion  of  the  entire  work. 

This  maintenance  will  consist  in  preserving  the  surface  and 
regularity  of  the  profile,  and  in  making  all  general  or  partial  repairs 
necessary  to  keep  the  road  in  a  perfect  state,  even  if  the  dilapida- 
tions are  the  result  of  accidental  causes,  as  fires,  sinking  of  the 
subsoil,  etc.,  excepting  only  the  digging  of  pits.  The  maintenance 
also  comprises  the  removal  of  the  old  material,  and  the  tools,  plant, 
etc.,  used  on  the  new  work. 

ARTICLE  14.  The  contractor  will  be  required  to  make  general 
repairs  on  all  portions  of  the  road  where  there  is  :  i.  A  reduction  of 
the  curve  diminishing  the  original  pitch  by  a  least  one-quarter.  2. 
Where  the  thickness  of  the  paving  blocks  has  been  worn  away  0.07  m. 
(2|  inches)  or  more.  3.  Depressions  or  partial  defects  of  the  road 
numerous  enough  to  make  it  rough,  the  Administration  being  judge 
of  the  time  when  it  shall  be  required  for  this  reason. 

All  the  requirements  of  the  foregoing  Articles,  10,  n  and  12, 
are  applicable  to  the  work  of  general  repairs. 

The  beton  foundation  will  generally  be  preserved  by  simply 
adding  Portland  cement — beton  on  top  if  there  is  room  for  it — and 
its  removal  will  not  be  obligatory  except  in  case  of  its  bad  condition. 

ARTICLE  15.  Besides  the  general  repairs  the  contractor  must 
insure  the  constant  good  state  of  the  pavement  \y$  partial  repairs 
that  may  be  necessary.  He  must  immediately  replace  paving  blocks 
that  are  decayed,  crushed,  broken  or  depressed  by  any  cause  what- 
ever, also  those  which  have  become  impregnated  with  urine  or  other 
offensive  liquids,  and  emit  a  bad  odor. 

He  must  repair  holes  whose  depth  reaches  0.02  m.  (f  inch)  for 
a  length  of  i  m.  (3.28  feet)  in  any  direction. 

At  the  junction  lines  of  the  wooden  pavement  with  the  stone  or 
asphalt  pavement  the  Administration  may  require  the  paving  blocks 
to  be  replaced  when  they  shall  have  been  worn  away  o.oi  m.  (^\  inch). 

In  all  partial  repairs  the  new  pavement  must  have  the  same 
level  as  the  adjacent ;  no  projections  will  be  tolerated. 

If  any  of  the  defects  enumerated  in  this  article  are  not  repaired 
within  three  days  after  notification,  a  charge  of  2  francs  per  square 
meter  (10.76  square  feet)  will  be  deducted  from  the  contract  price 
for  each  day's  delay. 

ARTICLE  16.  Renewals  for  trenches  opened  by  the  Administra- 
tion, for  any  cause,  must  be  executed  in  the  same  time  and  under 
the  same  restrictions  as  above,  under  penalty,  if  delayed,  of  5oc. 
per  square  meter  per  day,  unless  this  amount  should  be  less  than 
2  francs  per  trench  per  day. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  99 

Always,  except  in  urgent  Cases  specified  by  the  engineer,  the 
contractor  shall  have  the  privilege  of  constructing,  in  not  more  than 
fifteen  days,  at  his  own  expense,  the  gutters  with  pebbles  or  broken 
stone  carefully  leveled  and  rammed. 

The  methods  employed  must  permanently  prevent  the  scatter- 
ing of  rolling  stones  over  the  adjacent  surfaces.  The  renewed  por- 
tions will  immediately  pass  into  the  maintenance  of  the  contractor, 
who  must  preserve  them  according  to  the  conditions  of  Article  15. 
No  claims  will  be  allowed  for  repairs  required  by  sinking  of  the 
earth. 

The  contractor  will  only  be  paid  for  the  area  of  the  trenches 
measured  when  filled  up. 

ARTICLE  17.  The  old  material  and  rubbish  from  the  general 
repairs  must  be  entirely  removed  to  the  work-yards  at  the  expiration 
of  the  time  allowed  for  the  completion  of  the  work,  in  default  of 
which  the  contractor  will  be  subjected  to  a  penalty  of  3  francs  per 
day  for  each  deposit  not  removed. 

For  partial  repairs  and  trenching  the  removal  must  be  made  the 
same  day  the  work  is  executed,  under  the  same  penalty  for  delay. 

Finally,  the  materials  of  the  wooden  pavement,  including  its 
foundation,  displaced  by  digging  trenches,  must  be  removed  the  day 
the  trench  is  opened,  or  when  notified  by  the  engineer  if  this  occurs 
subsequently.  In  default  of  this  the  contractor  is  subject  to  the 
same  penalty,  and  is  entitled  to  no  compensation  for  loss  of  materials. 

ARTICLE  18.  The  cost  (>f  sprinkling  the  streets  will  be  sustained 
by  the  city,  which  will  also  pay  for  necessary  scouring. 

ARTICLE  19.  At  the  expiration  of  eighteen  years  as  defined  in 
Article  13,  the  roads  must  be  delivered  in  perfect  condition. 

Three  months  before  the  expiration  of  this  time  the  engineers 
will  make  a  statement  accompanying  that  of  the  contractor,  who 
shall  furnish  at  his  own  expense  a  certain  number  of  soundings. 
The  road  shall  not  be  received  unless  it  satisfies  the  following 
requirements  : 

(i.)  There  must  be  no  holes  having  a  depth  of  0.015111.  f-inch 
for  i  m.  (5.28  feet)  in  any  direction. 

(2.)  The  transverse  curve  of  the  surface  must  not  at  any  point 
be  reduced  so  that  the  pitch  is  less  than  four-fifths  of  its  original 
value. 

(3.)  The  thickness  of  the  blocks  must  at  no  place  be  less  than 
o.i 2m.  (4!  inches). 

After  the  engineer's  inspection  and  report  the  contractor  will 
be  allowed  three  months  to  place  the  work  in  required  condition. 

CHAPTER  IV. — ART.  20. — Payments  must  be  promptly  made  by 
the  contractor  for  the  wood  pavement  to  the  sub-contractors  for  the 


IOO  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

demolition  of  the  old  roads  and  removal  of  their  materials,  and  if 
this  is  not  voluntarily  done  the  amounts  will  be  paid  from  the  con- 
tractor's annuity  by  the  Administration  upon  the  engineer's  certifi- 
cate. 

The  demolition  and  removal  of  old  roads,  the  preparation  of 
road  bed  and  establishment  of  the  wood  pavement  will  be  remuner- 
ated only  by  the  fixed  annuity,  which  will  also  include  the  interest 
on,  and  payment  for,  the  expense  of  the  original  outlay  and  the 
required  maintenance. 

The  total  amount  of  this  annuity  is  fixed  in  the  contract  and  is 
subject  to  no  variation  during  the  period  of  the  contract ;  it  will  be 
paid  to  the  contractor  for  eighteen  years  beginning,  for  each  street, 
on  the  first  of  April  next  after  its  completion. 

ARTICLE  21.  The  contract  price  fixed  for  the  renewal  of  the 
pavement  will  be  paid  for  the  repairs  of  the  trenches,  the  demolition 
of  the  pavement  being  at  the  expense  of  the  company  opening  the 
trench.  The  contractor  must,  if  necessary,  relay  the  pavement  with 
entirely  new  materials,  and  can  make  no  claim  for  damages  to  the 
work  or  its  maintenance. 

ARTICLE  22.  The  Administration  reserves  the  privilege  to 
suppress,  at  any  time,  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  wood  pavement, 
and  will,  in  that  case,  pay  the  contractor  the  amount  per  square 
meter  agreed  upon  in  the  relative  clause  of  the  contract. 

ARTICLE  23  relates  to  the  non-fulfillment  of  the  contractor's 
obligations  and  the  penalties  incurred  by  delays,  etc. 

ARTICLE  24.  The  annuities  will  be  payable  at  the  first  of  each 
quarter,  subject  to  not  more  than  two  months'  delay.  Of  each  quar- 
terly payment  a  sum  will  be  withheld  amounting  for  the  first  six  years 
to  o.io  cent.,  for  the  second  six  years  to  0.15  cent.,  and  for  the  last 
six  years  to  0.25  cent,  per  square  meter.  These  amounts  cannot  be 
reduced,  and  will  be  deposited  in  the  municipal  treasury,  where  they 
will  form  a  total  sum  of  i2f.  per  square  meter,  constituting  a  guar- 
antee fund  for  the  maintenance  of  repairs,  etc. 

ARTICLE  25.  The  above  sum  will  be  repaid,  without  interest  to 
the  contractor  at  the  expiration  of  the  eighteen  years,  if  he  delivers 
up  the  roads  in  satisfactory  condition  ;  but  in  default  of  this  a  part 
or  the  whole  of  the  amount  may  be  used  by  the  Administration  to 
execute  the  repairs. 

ARTICLE  26.  If  the  contractor  abandons  the  work  he  will  forfeit 
all  claim  to  any  annuity  and  the  securities  deposited,  and  will 
receive  no  payment  for  materials  furnished. 

CHAPTER  V. — Obligations  of  Contractor. — ART.  27.  The  con- 
tractor's carts  or  wheelbarrows  will  not  be  permitted  on  the  side- 
walks, crosswalks  or  promenades.  If  a  pitchy  material  is  used  in 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  IOI 

the  bottom  of  the  joints  between  paving  blocks,  it  must  be  brought, 
ready  for  use,  from  the  shops,  or  prepared  in  closed  furnaces 
arranged  to  produce  no  smoke. 

ARTICLE  28.  The  contractor  must  inclose  and  properly  light 
his  shops,  work -yards  and  store-yards,  and  provide  watchmen  when 
necessary. 

He  must  light  them  only  with  lamps  or  closed  lanterns. 

He  must,  irrespective  of  police  requirements,  have  at  least  one 
lantern  for  every  10  meters  (33  feet)  of  the  length  of  the  work-yards. 

ARTICLE  29.  The  contractor  will  be  responsible  to  the  city  and 
to  property  owners  for  damages  from  fires  originating  in,  or  propa- 
gated by,  the  wood  pavements. 

ARTICLE  30.  The  contractor  will  be  responsible  to  the  city  for 
the  consequences  of  any  thrusts  which  may  result  from  the  expan- 
sion of  the  paving  blocks,  or  the  action  of  ice  in  the  open  spaces 
left  at  the  sides  of  the  roadway.  Such  repairs  will  be  executed  by 
the  city,  and  their  cost  deducted  from  the  contractor's  deposit  or 
the  payments  due  him. 

ARTICLE  31  requires  the  surrender  of  any  patent  rights. 

ARTICLE  32.  The  contractor  is  required  to  live  in  Paris,  and 
must  not  absent  himself  without  authorization  from  the  Administra- 
tion and  duly  providing  for  all  the  operations  of  his  work. 

The  contractor  or  his  agent  must  report  at  the  engineer's  office 
at  a  fixed  daily  hour,  to  receive  instructions  and  report  the  progress 
of  the  work. 

The  engineer  will  give  him  a  bill  of  the  work  to  be  executed 
the  next  day,  and  of  the  expenses,  for  his  approval. 

ARTICLE  33.  The  contractor  must  employ  none  but  French 
workmen. 

ARTICLE  34.  One  per  cent,  will  be  retained  from  all  payments, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  national  asylums  of  Vincennes  and  Vesinet. 

Schedule  of  Prices,  Subject  to  Decrease  by  the  Adjudication. — 
No.  i. — Annuity,  comprising  the  interest  and  payments  of  all  cost 
of  changing  the  existing  roads  to  wood  pavements  with  a  beton  foun- 
dation, and  the  contract  maintenance  of  these  roads  for  18  years, 
4.8of.  per  square  meter  (10.8  sq.  ft.) 

No.  2. — Annuity  to  be  paid  in  case  of  suppression,  by  the 
administration,  of  the  wood  pavement  before  the  expiration  of  the 
1 8  years,  2.4of.  per  square  meter  of  surface  of  pavement  suppressed. 

No.  3. — Renewal  of  wood  pavement  at  trenches,  comprising  the 
removal  of  old  material,  but  not  including  the  demolition,  23f.  per 
square  meter. 


I  WOOD     PAVEMENTS. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    WOOD    PAVEMENT    ON    THE    STRAND,    LONDON.* 

There  is  given  below  a  copy  of  the  form  of  contract  and  speci- 
fications used  in  1887,  under  which  wood  pavement  was  laid  on  the 
Strand,  London.  The  italics  are  ours.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
concrete  foundation  is  extra  thick  where  pipes  are  laid.  Arthur 
Ventris  was  surveyor  to  the  Strand  Vestry  in  1887  : 

Specification  of  works  required  to  be  done  in  forming  and  constructing 

a  wood  carriage-way  pavement  upon  concrete  foundations  in . .  

for  the  Board  of  Works  for  the  Strand  District  under  the  direction  of  the 
surveyor  for  the  time  being  of  the  said  Board  of  Works. 

The  works  comprise  the  formation  of  paved  carriage-ways  in  the  fol- 
lowing sections,  viz.: 

which  is  in  all  about yards,  as  otherwise  hereinafter  defined,  and  sub- 
ject to  the  conditions  specified,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  same  in  thorough 
repair  for  the  period  hereinafter  mentioned. 

Contractor  Responsible.  Levels. — The  contractors  to  set  out  and  keep 
correct  the  works  in  every  particular  according  to  this  specification,  or  by 
the  directions  they  may  receive  from  time  to  time,  and  to  be  held  responsi- 
ble for  the  correctness  of  the  work  throughout  the  whole  term  of  this  con- 
tract. The  levels  referred  to  in  this  specification  are  the  finished  levels  of 
the  surface  or  distances  therefrom,  and  shall  form  at  the  channels  a  true 
and  even  incline  towards  the  gullies  or  channels  of  existing  streets,  showing 
a  sufficient  and  proper  depth  of  kerb,  the  surface  of  the  wood  paving  and  of 
the  concrete  being  formed  transversely  to  a  curved  surface,  having  a  rise 
from  side  to  center  of  not  less  than  i  inch  in  5  feet,  except  where  otherwise 
directed  by  the  surveyor. 

Plant  and  Material. — The  contractors  to  supply  every  kind  of  plant, 
fencing,  lights,  watching  and  material  that  may  be  necessary  to  execute 
the  works,  including  all  horses,  carts,  water  carts,  and  rolling,  if  required, 
and  to  leave  the  whole  at  its  completion,  in  a  sound  and  perfect  condition, 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Surveyor  to  the  Board. 

Interference  "with  Traffic. — The  contractors  are  to  give  all  notices  that 
may  be  legally  or  fairly  demanded,  to  the  owners  or  occupiers  of  the  prop- 
erty, or  to  the  gas  and  water  companies,  or  to  any  other  person  or  persons 
who  may  be  fairly  entitled  to  consideration,  and  as  far  as  practicable,  to 
study  the  public  as  well  as  private  convenience  during  the  progress  of  the 
work,  and  to  provide  intelligent  and  responsible  foremen  to  superintend  the 
same,  and  generally  to  perform  the  work  with  as  little  interference  with  the 
traffic  as  is  compatible  with  a  workmanlike  and  sound  completion  of  the 
works.  The  contractors  are  not  in  anyway  themselves  to  interfere  with  the 
gas  or  water  mains,  without  the  sanction  of  the  various  companies,  except 
the  said  mains  or  house  services  are  accidentally  injured,  in  which  case  the 
contractor  or  contractors  are  to  make  good  such  injury  at  their  own  expense, 
to  the  satisfaction  of  such  company  or  other  party  interested. 

Excavation  and  Foundation. — The  roadway  from  time  to  time  will  be 
handed  over  to  the  contractors  free  from  the  present  granite  pitching,  and 
the  contractors,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  are  required  to  excavate  to  a 

*xxi,  5. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  103 

depth  of  fifteen  inches  from  the  finished  surface  of  the  roadway,  and  to  cart 
away  at  once  such  excavation.  To  form  a  Portland  cement  concrete  foun- 
dation, except  where  otherwise  mentioned,  nine  inches  in  thickness,  mixed 
in  the  proportion  of  seven  parts  of  ballast,  to  one  of  Portland  cement,  and 
the  ballast  to  be  clean  Thames  ballast  and  sharp  river  sand,  free  from  loam, 
mixed  together  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  surveyor.  The  surface  of  the  con- 
crete to  be  properly  floated  to  a  true  surface,  and  formed  to  the  required 
contour  of  the  street.  Should  the  present  foundation,  however,  during  the 
progress  of  the  work  be  found  sufficiently  sound  to  require  under  the  cir- 
cumstances a  less  depth  of  concrete  foundation,  the  same  shall  be  measured 
and  not  disturbed,  and  shall  be  considered  a  substitute  for  concrete  to  be 
put  in,  and  the  amount  shall  be  deducted  from  the  tendered  price  at  the 
rate  indicated  in  this  contract ;  the  decision  of  the  surveyor  to  be  final. 

Extra  Work. — Where  a  trench  has  been  opened  by  either  the  water 
or  gas  company,  or  where  an  extra  thickness  of  concrete  shall  be  required 
by  the  surveyor,  the  same  shall,  if  he  so  direct,  be  provided,  including 
excavation,  and  shall  be  charged  as  extra  work  at  per  six  inches  in  thick- 
ness of  concrete,  and  the  concrete  so  put  in,  shall  be  one  foot  three  inches 
in  thickness,  measured  from  the  underside  of  the  wood  pavement. 

The  Paving. —  The  wood  blocks  6"X3*X9'  are  to  be  of  the  best  Baltic 
red  wood  or  other  equally  good  timber,  prepared  in  creosote,  and  shall  be 
placed  directly  upon  the  concrete  in  rows  across  the  street,  the  joints  to  be 
grouted  with  cement  grout  or  run  in  with  hot  bituminous  mastic  (the 
kerb  joint  excepted);  the  cement  grout  to  be  composed  of  one  part  of  Port- 
land cement  to  three  parts  of  sharp  river  sand  free  from  loam,  the  whole  to 
be  covered  with  a  top  dressing  of  improved  ballast. 

The  works  are  to  be  executed  in  the  following  manner :  Section  No. 

i  shall  be  commenced  from  the end,  and  the  whole  of  the  excavation 

shall  be  made  and  the  foundation  completed,  within days  from  the 

day  following  the  closing  of  the  street,  and  the  wood  blocks  shall  be  laid 
complete  and  the  section  opened  for  traffic  in  six  days  further,  making  in 

all days  including  Sundays,  from  the  day  following  the  closing  of  the 

street.  The  removal  of  the  granite  pitching  will  be  undertaken  by  the 
Board  or  their  agents,  but  nothing  shall  exempt  the  parties  to  this  contract 
from  the  terms  of  this  clause,  except  as  hereinafter  provided. 

During  the  excavation  and  the  forming  of  the  foundation,  the  work 
shall  proceed  night  and  day  subject  to  an  increase  on  the  sum  tendered 
per  yard  of  10  per  cent. ,  but  this  work  shall  be  required  to  be  done  by 
notice  in  writing  under  the  hand  of  the  surveyor,  and  should  no  such  notice 
be  given  the  work  shall  proceed  with  due  speed,  and  the  excavation  and 

foundations  shall  be  completed  within and  the  blocks  shall  be  laid  and 

the  whole  thrown  open  for  the  traffic  in  a  further  period  of  six  days,  mak- 
ing in  all from  the  day  following  the  closing  of  the  street. 

Section  No.  2  shall  be  executed  in  two  halves  longitudinally  or  other 

approved  method ;  access  being  given  as  far  as  possible  to and  to 

and  these  streets  shall  not  be  blocked  at  one  and  the  same  time, 

neither  shall  the  roadway  of be  entirely  blocked,  unless  with  the 

written  consent  of  the  surveyor.  The  removal  of  the  granite  pitching  will 
be  undertaken  by  the  Board  or  their  agents  from  time  to  time,  but  the  join- 
ing of  the  concrete  foundation  shall  be  made  in  a  manner  as  directed  by 
the  surveyor  at  the  expense  of  the  contractors,  and  the  work  shall  proceed 
with  due  speed  and  be  completed  within from  the  date  of  commence- 
ment of  Section  No.  i. 


IO4  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

Section  3  comprises  the  taking  up  of  the  wood  pavement  where 
directed,  and  of  making  up  the  present  concrete  to  the  required  levels,  and 
floating  to  a  true  and  even  surface,  the  surface  having  previously  been 
picked  over  and  thoroughly  cleansed  by  washing,  etc. ,  the  laying  of  wood 
blocks  as  hereinbefore  specified  run  in  or  grouted,  and  top  dressing  thrown 

on,  and  open  for  the  traffic  in from  the  date  of  commencement  of  this 

section,  and  the  price  to  be  paid  per  yard  for  this  work  shall  be  the  sum 
tendered  for  this  section. 

Extension  of  Time. — That  the  surveyor,  if  by  reason  of  the  Metropol- 
itan Board  of  Works  failing  to  give  the  necessary  permission  to  close  the 
street,  or  he  sees  just  cause,  shall  grant  an  extension  of  time  by  writing 
under  his  hand,  such  extension  of  time  to  be  either  prospective  or  retro- 
spective, and  to  assign  such  other  day  or  days  for  completion  as  may  to 
him  seem  reasonable,  without  thereby  prejudicing  or  in  any  way  interfering 
with  the  validity  of  this  contract. 

Inferior  Materials,  etc. — Should  any  materials  be  brought  upon  the 
works,  or  should  there  be  any  of  the  workmanship  which,  in  the  judgment 
of  the  surveyor  shall  be  of  an  inferior  description  and  improper  to  be  used 
in  the  works,  the  said  material  shall  be  removed,  and  the  workmanship 
amended  forthwith,  or  within  such  period  as  the  surveyor  may  direct.  In 
case  the  contractor  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  comply  with  the  foregoing 
conditions,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  surveyor  on  behalf  of  the  Board  and 
by  their  agents,  servants  and  workmen,  to  remove  the  material  and  work- 
manship so  objected  to  or  any  part  thereof,  and  to  replace  the  same  with 
such  other  materials  and  workmanship  as  shall  be  satisfactory  to  him,  and 
the  Board,  on  the  certificate  of  the  surveyor,  to  deduct  the  expense  thereby 
incurred  or  to  which  the  Board  may  thereby  be  put  or  liable,  or  which  may 
be  incident  thereto  from  the  amount  of  any  money  which  may  be  or  may 
become  due,  or  owing  to  the  contractors,  or  to  recover  the  same 
by  action  at  law  or  otherwise  from  the  contractor,  as  the  Board  may  deter- 
mine ;  and  in  case  the  contractors  shall  fail  to  carry  on  the  works  with 
due  diligence  and  as  much  expedition  as  the  Board  or  their  surveyor  shall 
require,  or  neglect  to  provide  proper  and  sufficient  materials,  or  to  employ 
a  sufficient  number  of  workmen  to  execute  the  works,  the  Board  or  their 
officers  shall  have  full  power,  without  vitiating  this  contract,  and  they  are 
hereby  authorized  to  take  the  works  wholly  or  in  part  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  contractor,  and  to  engage  or  employ  any  other  person  or  workmen,  and 
procure  all  requisite  materials  and  implements  for  the  due  execution  and 
completion  of  the  said  works  ;  and  the  costs  and  charges  incurred  by  them 
in  so  doing  shall  be  ascertained  by  the  surveyor,  and  paid  for  or  allowed  to 
the  Board  by  the  contractors,  and  it  shall  be  competent  to  the  Board  to 
deduct  the  amount  of  such  costs  and  charges  out  of  any  moneys  due  or  to 
become  due  from  them  to  the  contractors  under  this  or  any  other 
contract. 

Fines. — That  time  shall  especially  be  considered  as  the  essence  of  this 
contract  on  the  part  of  the  contractors :  and  in  case  the  contractors  shall 
fail  in  the  due  performance  of  the  works  to  be  executed  under  this  contract 
by  and  at  the  times  herein  mentioned  or  referred  to,  or  other  day  or  days 
to  which  the  period  of  completion  may  have  been  extended,  they  shall  be 
liable  to  forfeit  to  the  Board  the  sum  of  ^50  for  each  and  every  day  which 
may  elapse  between  the  appointed  and  actual  time  of  completion  hereinbefore 
mentioned,  or  the  Board  may  deduct  the  same  from  any  moneys  in  their  hands 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  105 

due  or  to  become  due  to  the  contractors,  and  such  payments  or  deductions 
shall  not  in  any  degree  release  the  contractors  from  further  obligations  and 
forfeitures  in  respect  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  entire  contract. 

Tenders. — The  contractors  shall  state  in  their  tender  the  price  per  yard 
for  wood  paving  laid  on  concrete,  including  excavation,  in  every  respect 
according  to  this  specification.  Where,  however,  the  surveyor  may  deem  it 
necessary  to  order  the  contractors  to  execute  extra  work  in  connection  with 
these  works  hereinbefore  described,  such  extra  work  shall  be  paid  for  by 
the  Board  at  prices  to  be  fixed  by  the  surveyor,  and  to  be  accepted  by  the 
contractors. 

Maintenance. — The  contractors  shall  keep  and  maintain  the  works  in 
sound  condition  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  surveyor,  for  two  years  next  after 
the  completion  of  this  contract,  free  of  cost  to  the  Board,  and  shall,  if 
required  so  to  do  in  writing  under  the  seal  of  the  Board,  keep  and  main- 
tain the  aforesaid  works  in  whole  or  in  part  in  sound  condition  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  surveyor  for  a  term  of  years  (to  be  stated  in  the  tender)  for 
the  tendered  sum  per  square  yard  per  annum,  first  payable  on  completion 
of  the  third  year  from  the  date  of  completion  of  the  works. 

Payments. — The  contractors  shall  be  paid  one-third  part  of  the  con- 
tract on  completion  of  one-half  of  the  works,  and  one  further  third  upon 
completion  of  the  works,  and  one  further  third  six  months  after  such  com- 
pletion, but  only  upon  the  certificate  of  the  surveyor  of  the  satisfactory 
completion  or  condition  of  the  said  works  according  to  the  specification. 

SANITARY    ASPECTS   OF    WOOD    PAVEMENTS.* 

This  is  a  report  of  a  Board  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  alleged 
deleterious  effects  of  wood  paving  upon  the  public  health.  The 
subject  of  pavements  of  different  kinds  in  relation  to  cleanliness, 
freedom  from  noise,  and  surety  of  foot-hold  is  first  discussed  and 
the  conclusions  of  the  Board  summed  up  in  the  table  on  page  106. 

From  this  comparative  statement  it  appears  that  no  one  pavement  has; 
all  the  qualities  which  are  necessary  to  make  a  perfect  pavement.  Mono- 
lithic asphalt  comes  nearest  to  the  model.  It  is  the  only  material  which  can 
be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  it  costs  less  for  cleansing  than  any  other.  In 
point  of  hardness,  smoothness,  and  noiselessness  it  is  unmatched.  But  it  is 
adapted  only  to  low  grades — grades  so  low  that  it  is  practically  useless  in 
this  city  except  for  sidewalks,  and  this  failure  depends  upon  the  qualities  of 
smoothness  and  hardness  which,  important  as  they  are  in  other  respects, 
render  the  foot-hold  comparatively  insecure.  In  a  similar  way  each  other 
kind  of  material  may  be  criticised.  Some  objections,  varying  in  character 
with  the  kind  of  road,  appear  in  all ;  and  these  are  only  in  part  overcome 
by  varying  the  material  with  the  kind  of  country  over  which  the  road  is 
taken,  and  with  the  kind  of  traffic  for  which  it  will  be  chiefly  used.  What- 
ever material  is  chosen  from  among  those  which,  up  to  this  date,  are 
available,  the  pavement  made  with  it  must  be  a  compromise.  There  is,  at 
present,  no  pavement  which  can  be  called  "best;"  only  some  kinds  are 
less  objectionable  than  others. 

legislative  Assembly,  New  South  Wales,  Wood-Pavement  Board  Re- 
port, Sydney,  1884.  xi,  331. 


io6 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 


The  Board  examined  some  specimens  of  wood  pavement  as  laid  in  the 
city  of  Sydney,  taking  up  blocks  at  different  points.  In  all  cases  the 
concrete  bed  underneath  was  moist ;  in  three  cases  a  large  amount  of  slimy 
mud  was  found,  giving  off  an  ammonical  odor.  In  all  these  the  joints  and 
blocks  appeared  to  be  uninjured.  The  blocks  were  chemically  examined  to 
determine  whether  they  had  absorbed  organic  matter,  with  the  result  that 
some  were  found  impregnated  with  filth  to  the  very  centre,  while  others 
were  comparatively  free  from  it. 


A  MODEL  ROAD- 
PAVEMENT. 

GRANITE 
BLOCKS. 

SHEET 
ASPHALT. 

WOOD  BLOCKS. 

MACADAM. 

Should  be  imper- 
vious. 

'oints  pervious, 
equal   to  one- 
third  of  surface 
and  retentive. 

Impervious. 

Absorbent  and 
retentive. 

Pervious. 

Should  afford 
good  foot-hold. 

Fairly  good. 

Good. 

Variable. 

Good. 

Should  be  hard. 

Too  hard,  injur- 
ing horses'  feet 
and  vehicles. 

Hard  and  elastic 

Not  sufficiently 
hard. 

Soft. 

Should  offer  little 
resistance  to  trac- 
tion. 

Considerable. 

Little. 

Variable  with  age, 
etc. 

Medium. 

Should  be  noise- 
less. 

The  most  noisy 

The  least  noise. 

Less  than  granite 
more  than  asphalt. 

Less  than  gran- 
ite; more   than 
asphalt. 

Should  be  cheap. 

? 

? 

? 

? 

Should  yield  no 
detritus. 

Less  than  ma- 
cadam; more 
than  wood  or 
asphalt. 

Yields   less 
detritus. 

Least,  except  as 
asphalt. 

Yields  most 
detritus. 

The   surface 
should    be   easily 
cleansed. 

Less  easily  than 
asphalt. 

Most  easily 
cleaned. 

Not  easily  cleaned 

Not  easily 
cleaned. 

Should  suit  all 
traffic. 

Practically  suits 
all. 

Suits  all  traffic 

Does  not  suit  very 
heavy  traffic. 

Not  heavy, 
traffic. 

Should  be  adapted 
to  every  grade. 

Not  to  very 
steep  grades. 

Grades  must  not 
be  more  than 
1-50. 

Not  to  very  steep 
grades. 

All  grades. 

The  Board  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  wood  is  a  material  which 
cannot  be  safely  used  for  paving  unless  it  can  be  rendered  absolutely 
impermeable  to  moisture,  and  so  laid  that  while  the  entrance  of  water 
between  the  blocks  is  rendered  impossible  the  separation  of  the  fibres  at 
the  surface  by  the  concussion  of  traffic  is  also  effectually  prevented.  These 
conditions  have  nowhere,  to  the  knowledge  of  your  Board,  been  fulfilled. 

So  far  as  the  careful  researches  of  your  Board  go  the  porous,  absorbent, 
and  destructible  nature  of  wood  must,  in  its  opinion,  be  declared  to  be 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  107 

irremediable  by  any  process  at  present  known  ;  nor  were  any  such  process 
discovered,  would  it  be  effectual  unless  it  were  supplemented  by  another, 
which  should  prevent  fraying  of  the  fibre.  Still  less  can  the  defects  of 
wood  be  considered  to  be  of  less  consequence  than  the  defects  of  other 
kinds  of  material. 

In  this  city  it  may,  perhaps,  be  considered  that  an  amount  of  wood  has 
not  yet  been  laid  sufficient  to  affect  the  public  health,  whatever  its  condition 
within  reasonable  limits  may  be  ;  and  upon  this  ground  your  Board  does 
not  recommend  that  the  present  paving  should  be  removed,  but  that  the 
Board  of  Health  should  be  empowered  to  examine  it,  and  to  report  upon  it, 
from  time  to  time,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  its  behavior  under  longer 
exposure  to  weather  and  traffic  than  it  has  yet  had,  and  that  it  should  be  no 
longer  watered,  but  cleansed  by  sweeping  at  least  twice  a  day  (  the  sweep- 
ing to  be  done  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  street  or  parallel  to  the 
courses,  so  that  the  latter  may  be  cleared  out  by  the  broom)  in  order  that 
destructive  dampness  and  penetration  of  dissolved  organic  matter  may  be 
reduced  as  much  as  possible.  But  the  presumption  is  upon  the  evidence 
here  adduced,  that  in  this  climate  the  results  alluded  to  would  ensue  if  the 
extent  of  surface  were  sufficiently  enlarged  or  fouling  and  decay  sufficiently 
extensive.  Your  Board,  therefore,  recommends  that  the  paving  of  the 
streets  of  this  city  with  wood  should  be  discontinued,  and  desires  to  add 
that  this  recommendation  is  intended  to  apply  not  to  the  particular  mode  of 
construction  here  adopted  alone,  but  to  the  material  itself,  and  to  every 
known  method  of  construction. 

The  appendix  to  the  report  contains  some  interesting  data 
with  regard  to  wood  pavements,  and  the  volume  is  one  which 
municipal  engineers  will  find  interesting  and  valuable  as  a  book  of 
reference. 

NECESSITY    OF   MAINTAINING    A    WOOD   PAVEMENT.* 

In  the  summer  of  1883  a  wood-block  pavement  was  laid  on 
Fifth  Avenue,  between  Thirty-second  and  Thirty-third  Streets.  A 
good  concrete  foundation  was  carefully  laid  to  the  proper  grade 
and  transverse  profiles  ;  on  this  blocks  of  pine  which  had  been 
dipped  in  dead  oil — not  thoroughly  creosoted — were  laid  in  rows 
about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  apart.  Enough  bitumen  was  poured 
into  the  interstices  to  hold  the  blocks  in  place,  possibly  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  depth;  the  interstices  were  then  filled  with  a  Portland 
cement  concrete,  the  whole  covered  with  a  top  dressing  of  hard, 
clean  gravel  about  the  size  of  peas,  and  when  the  concrete  had  had 
time  to  set  traffic  was  turned  on  to  the  pavement. 

This  pavement  has  stood  since  then,  it  is  believed,  without  any 
other  attention  or  repairs  than  sweeping.  It  has  not  even  received 
a  coating  of  gravel,  which  in  European  practice  it  would  have 
received,  on  the  theory  that  the  gravel  crushing  in  between  the  end 
fibres  of  the  wood  prevents  wear  to  some  extent. 

*  Ed.  xviii,  49. 


IO8  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

All  this  time  it  has  been  almost  entirely  free  from  noise.  It 
has  been  cleaner  than  any  stone  pavement  in  the  city,  and  has  been 
the  pleasantest  and  safest  piece  of  pavement  in  the  city  to  drive  over. 

Now  through  inefficient  creosoting  or  inherent  weakness  in 
some  of  the  blocks  they  have  commenced  to  fail,  and  between  one 
and  two  per  cent,  of  the  pavement  requires  renewal.  The  practice 
in  New  York  has  been,  with  all  wood  pavements,  in  such  a  case  to 
sit  complacently  and  see  the  depression  from  a  defective  block, 
originally  four  inches  by  six,  extend  over  a  constantly  increasing 
area,  and  these  areas  increase  in  number  until  the  pavement  was 
irretrievably  ruined,  when  the  wood  pavements  were  condemned 
and  the  locality  took  to  itself  a  stone  pavement  many  times  noisier 
and  dirtier  than  before. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  with  the  able  engineer  at  the  head  of  our 
Department  of  Public  Works  the  old  record  will  not  be  repeated, 
but  that  advantage  will  be  taken  of  the  small  traffic  on  the  avenue 
for  the  next  two  months  to  shut  off  half  of  the  roadway  at  a  time 
and  replace  all  defective  blocks,  allowing  the  concrete  full  time  to 
set;  and  we  hope  it  is  not  too  much  to  urge  that  more  attention 
be  given  to  that  piece  of  pavement  than  it  has  received  in.  the 
past. 

WOOD  PAVEMENTS   IN    LONDON  AND    NEW  YORK.* 

Construction  and  Maintenance. — The  London  Financial  Times 
states  that  in  1883  the  Strand  was  paved  with  wood,  from  Charing 
Cross  to  the  Strand  Post-Office,  by  the  Vestry  authorities,  and  from 
the  Post-Office  eastward  to  St.  Mary's  Church  the  work  was  done  at 
the  same  time  by  the  Improved  Wood  Paving  Company.  "  As  every 
Londoner  knows,  to  his  cost,  the  Strand  was  '  up  '  about  a  month 
ago,  while  the  paving  put  down  by  the  Vestry  in  1883  was  renewed. 
That  laid  down  by  the  Improved  Wood  Paving  Company  is  still 
good,  and  has  not  had  to  be  touched  during  the  six  years  of  pre- 
cisely the  same  wear  and  tear  which  has  torn  the  other  half  of  the 
Strand  into  holes  and  splinters."  A  part  of  the  Strand,  though  it 
is  not  now  possible  to  say  with  certainty  which  part,  required 
renewal  last  spring,  as  the  blocks  were  worn  in  places  to  a  thickness 
of  less  than  three  inches. 

The  point  which  is  of  interest  to  Americans,  and  to  New  York- 
ers in  particular,  is  that  two  different  samples  of  wood  pavement 
lasted  six  years  in  the  Strand,  which  has  fully  three  times  the  traffic 
of  Fifth  Avenue,  while  on  that  avenue  a  wood  pavement  was  not 
made  to  last  five  years  before  a  barbarous  return  to  stone  was  made. 

The  difference  in  the  wearing  of  wood  pavements  in  the  two 
cities  lies  entirely  in  the  fact  that  in  London  a  pavement  of  any  kind 

*  Ed.  xx,  329. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  lOp 

is  maintained.  But  the  City  of  New  York,  for  the  past  twenty  years, 
has  not  been  able  to  get  authorities  who  understood  the  necessity  of 
maintenance.  The  pavements  have  been  patched,  and  they  have 
been  renewed,  but  not  maintained.  The  Engineering  and  Building 
Record  from  time  to  time  called  attention  to  the  necessity  of  re- 
placing the  few  blocks  in  the  wood  pavement  formerly  on  Fifth 
Avenue  which  had  proved  defective,  but  we  think  nothing  was 
done  until  the  places  started  by  single  defective  blocks  were  so 
far  extended  that  the  pavement  was  condemned  and  replaced  by 
stone  blocks. 

Profits  in  Paving. — Moreover,  the  companies  that  have  put  down 
and  maintained — for  the  maintaining  part  of  the  contract  is  gener- 
ally well  enforced — London  pavements  for  the  local  authorities  seem 
to  have  themselves  been  very  prosperous.  The  Financial  Times 
says  that  the  Improved  Wood  Paving  Company  paid  5  per  cent,  for 
four  years  ending  with  1882,  8  per  cent,  in  1883,  and  has  paid  10 
per  cent,  since.  The  Val  de  Travers  Asphaltic  Company  pays  not 
less  than  »  per  cent.,  and  the  Compagnie  Generate  des  Asphaltes  de 
France,  both  doing  business  in  London,  yields  a  steady  return  to  its 
shareholders  of  £i  on  each  £6  share  !  The  Limmer  Company, 
also  laying  asphalt,  met  with  heavy  losses  at  the  start  in  consequence 
of  poor  material,  but  is  now  paying  satisfactory  dividends.  The 
necessity  for  having  responsible,  and  therefore  prosperous,  com- 
panies to  deal  with  is  obvious,  and  the  statements  of  the  London 
contemporary  certainly  make  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  paving 
contracts  with  the  maintenance  feature,  from  all  points  of  view. 

RAWLINSON    ON    WOOD    PAVEMENTS.* 

Mr.  Robert  Rawlinson,  writing  to  The  Builder,  on  wooden 
pavements,  which  are  now  being  laid  extensively  in  London,  says  : 

The  character  of  wooden  pavements  may  be  known  by  the  occupants 
of  carriages  in  driving  over  them.  Where  the  blocks  are  laid  upon  sand 
and  boards,  the  vibrating  and  drumming  effects  are  most  distressing. 
When  laid  with  open  joints  the  surface  becomes  rapidly  worn  and  uneven  ; 
and  when  laid  upon  an  imperfectly-formed  or  weak  foundation,  the  surface 
also  becomes  uneven,  alternately  hills  and  holes,  retaining  dirt  and  wet, 
and  so  tending  more  and  more  to  the  destruction  of  material  and  the  road. 
Blocks  of  wood,  unexceptional  in  character,  form,  and  dimensions  of  mate- 
rial, laid  hard  on  an  exceptionally  good  cement  concrete  foundation,  close 
jointed,  but  without  the  felt  bedding  and  jointing  have  a  disagreeably 
jarring  effect,  though  in  a  less  degree  than  the  examples  previously 
described. 

Some  of  the  wood-paving  companies  must  have  been  very  stupid,  and 
also  very  difficult  to  teach,  or  they  would  have  learnt  by  their  failures, 
sooner  than  they  appear  to  have  done,  and  we  should  not  then  have  seen 

*vi,  67. 


110  WOOD   PAVEMENTS. 

most  important  main  thoroughfares  blocked  for  weeks  at  a  time  by  the 
pulling  up  of  the  entire  wood  construction  to  begin  again  as  from  the 
beginning,  and  this  process  more  than  once  over. 

********* 

Cement  foundations  for  wood-block  paving  ought  to  have  ten  or 
twelve  days  to  "set,"  but  in  London  this  time  can  seldom,  if  ever,  be 
given,  and  this  may,  in  some  cases,  account  for  partial  failures.  Wooden 
pavements,  in  themselves,  make  no  mud,  but  this  is  carried  on  from  adjoin- 
ing dirty  macadam  and  "set"  paving.  When,  therefore,  wooden  pave- 
ments are  muddy,  it  shows  neglect  in  street-scavenging. 

PAVEMENTS   OF    COMPRESSED    WOOD.* 

The  increased  favor  with  which  wood-pavements  have  of  late 
come  to  be  regarded  in  European  cities,  has  led  to  the  devising  of 
numerous  processes  that  have  for  their  object  the  preparation  of 
wood  for  use  in  pavements. 

In  a  process  of  this  kind,  on  the  one  hand,  of  course,  strength 
and  durability  of  the  product  must  be  aimed  at ;  on  the  other,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  working  expenses  be  as  low  as  possible. 

In  this  connection  we  note  an  article  in  the  Semaine  des  Con- 
structeurs  on  the  process  of  Cyprien  Mallet,  which  is  said  to  fulfill 
these  requirements. 

The  salts  of  the  metals  and  various  other  substances  having  the 
property  of  preserving  wood  from  decay,  Mallet  injects,  hot,  into  the 
core  of  the  pine-trees,  an  antiseptic  fluid,  and  then  compresses  the 
logs  about  i-io  their  volume. 

The  antiseptic  liquid  is  composed  of  :  copper  sulphate,  6  kilos  ; 
juice  sulphate,  6  kilos  ;  sodium  chloride,  3  kilos,  which  are  dissolved 
by  boiling  in  35  litres  of  water  containing  no  lime  salts. 

Without  interrupting  the  boiling,  there  is  added  then  :  resin 
oil,  40  kilos  ;  heavy  oil,  40  kilos  ;  suet,  10  kilos.  This  solution  is 
concentrated  to  a  certain  degree  over  a  moderate  fire.  Ten  litres  of 
this  liquid  mixed  with  90  litres  of  boiling  water  is  the  fluid  used. 
The  wood  charged  with  this  preparation  becomes  very  hard,  yet  it 
retains  sufficient  elasticity  ;  it  is  not  affected  by  the  weather. 

In  Paris  the  cost  of  a  pavement  of  this  kind  comes  to  about 
four  dollars  per  square  meter. 

CEDAR   BLOCKS  VERSUS   ASPHALT  FOR  STREET-PAVEMENTS.f 

CEDAR  RAPIDS,  IOWA,  March  16,  1887. 

SIR:  Do  you  think  cedar  blocks  for  street  pavements  as  healthful  as 
asphalt  or  other  non-absorbent  material  ?  For  like  reasons,  are  the  blocks 
when  placed  on  boards  and  not  treated  with  creosote  as  good  as  when 
treated  and  put  on  concrete  ?  Respectfully  yours, 

JOSSELYN  &  TAYLOR. 

*ix,  503.     fxv,  431. 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  Ill 

[Answering  the  questions  of  our  correspondents  in  order,  we  would  say: 

First — That  on  general  principles,  that  pavement  from  which  water 
passes  away  with  the  least  percolation  to  the  soil  below  and  which  can  be 
most  thoroughly  and  easily  cleansed  is  the  most  conducive  to  health. 

Second — No  pavement  placed  on  boards  or  directly  on  the  earth  is  as 
durable  as  when  placed  on  concrete  ;  this  is  the  universal  verdict  of  all 
municipal  engineers  who  have  had  opportunity  to  observe  the  matter,  and 
the  latest  practice  in  France  and  England,  where  wood  has  been  used,  is  to 
make  a  carefully  formed  and  substantial  concrete  foundation  for  the 
blocks. 

Third—  Creosoting  undoubtedly  adds  to  the  life  of  the  blocks,  by  mak- 
ing them  wear  out  rather  than  decay  irregularly.  This  question  is  compli- 
cated by  the  secondary  ones  of  amount  of  traffic,  kind  of  timber,  care  in 
selection,  proper  seasoning,  etc. 

Abroad  a  most  rigid  inspection  is  made,  the  blocks  are  thoroughly 
seasoned  and  thoroughly  creosoted. 

Fourth — The  selection  of  a  pavement  should  be  guided  among  other 
things  by  the  question  of  amount  of  traffic.  On  some  streets  in  our  cities 
nothing  will  stand  the  wear  but  the  best  granite  blocks.  Original  cost 
oftentimes  becomes  also  the  deciding  motive.  We  think  it  can  scarcely  be 
questioned  that  asphalt  is  superior  to  wooden  blocks,  provided  other  con- 
siderations do  not  essentially  alter  the  conditions.] 

CEDAR    BLOCK    PAVEMENT    IN    ST.    PAUL.* 

A  recent  number  of  the  Pioneer  Press,  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  contains  the 
following. 

Durability. — The  cedar  blocks  taken  up  on  East  Seventh  Street  dur- 
ing the  construction  of  the  cable  conduit  show  an  average  wear  of  less  than 
a  inches.  This  is  very  noticeably  light,  because  that  pavement  was  the  first 
cedar  block  pavement  put  down  in  St.  Paul.  This  was  in  1882,  seven  years 
ago.  The  pavement  is  good  for  ten  years  of  service  yet,  with  occasional 
repairs,  and  that  is  a  first-class  record  on  a  street  where  a  heavy  traffic  is 
carried  on.  The  blocks  are  in  a  perfect  state  of  preservation.  The  planks 
beneath  them  are  i-inch  planks,  but  show  some  effects  of  seven  years'  pound- 
ing. Two-inch  planks  are  used  now. 

In  regard  to  the  above  item  L.  W.  Rundlett,  City  Engineer  of 
St.  Paul,  says  : 

The  statement  of  the  Pioneer  Press  is  not  strictly  correct ;  the  pav- 
ing was  laid  in  1882  and  was  among  the  first  cedar  block  pavements  put 
down  in  the  city.  The  roadway  is  40  feet  wide,  with  street  car  tracks  occu- 
pying a  width  of  about  15  feet  in  the  centre.  It  is  a  retail  street  and  one  of 
the  principal  thoroughfares  of  the  city,  although  not  subject  to  as  heavy 
traffic  as  some  other  streets.  On  account  of  the  street  car  tracks  being  in 
the  centre  the  line  of  travel  was  thrown  to  a  considerable  extent  on  each 
side  of  these  tracks,  which  made  the  wear  somewhat  unequal ;  the  wear  of 
the  blocks,  more  particularly  in  the  line  of  travel,  being  from  2  to  2^  inches; 
the  blocks  originally  being  6  inches  in  depth.  The  blocks  themselves  show 
very  little  decay,  some  of  the  foundation  boards,  which  were  only  an  inch 

*  xx,  86. 


112  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

thick  (our  present  construction  is  2-inch  plank)  were  somewhat  decayed,  and 
in  repairs  probably  25  per  cent,  were  renewed. 

The  Water  Board  have  put  down  a  larger  main  on  the  street  this  year  ; 
the  gas  company  have  put  down  a  new  gas  main,  and  the  cable  line  has 
been  substituted  for  the  horse  line  ;  a  subway  for  putting  wires  underground 
is  also  in  process  of  construction.  This  work,  with  the  necessary  changes 
in  the  house  connections,  has  caused  the  street  to  be  pretty  well  torn  to 
pieces  ;  we  have,  however,  used  considerable  care  in  replacing  the  blocks, 
and  I  think  it  will  probably  be  about  three  years  before  the  street  will 
require  to  be  repaved. 

WOOD  PAVEMENT  IN  DULUTH.  * 

f  Cedar  blocks  were  used  for  paving  and  were  laid  upon  a  per- 
manent concrete  foundation,  so  that  when  the  traffic  on  the  street 
became  heavier,  stone  blocks  could  be  substituted  in  place  of  the 
cedar  without  relaying  the  foundation. 

The  method  of 'laying  the  pavement  was  as  follows:  After  the 
street  was  brought  to  the  required  sub-grade  it  was  repeatedly  rolled 
with  the  steam  road-roller.  A  granite  curb  was  then  laid  on  either 
side,  under  which  was  a  tile  drain,  to  prevent  water  getting  under 
the  concrete.  The  concrete  of  the  foundation  was  then  laid  six 
inches  deep  over  the  entire  roadway,  and  was  composed  of  five  parts 
natural  cement,  twelve  parts  coarse  sand  and  twenty-four  parts 
broken  stone,  well  mixed  together  and  quickly  laid  in  place.  The 
surface  of  the  concrete  was  then  made  smooth  by  a  thin  layer  of 
mortar,  consisting  of  one  part  cement  and  two  parts  sand,  brought 
to  the  right  form  by  means  of  templates.  This  was  allowed  to 
harden  for  about  five  days,  when,  outside  the  street  car  tracks, 
round  cedar  blocks  were  laid  directly  on  the  concrete  and  covered 
with  tar  and  gravel  in  the  usual  manner.  The  street  car  company 
paved  the  space  between  the  rails  of  their  track  with  granite  blocks 
set  in  sand. 

Where  the  grade  is  10  feet  in  100,  cedar  block  pavement  would 
have  been  too  slippery  in  wet  or  frosty  weather,  so  rectangular  pine 
blocks  four  inches  wide  were  laid  on  end  in  parallel  rows,  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  apart,  on  a  2-inch  plank  foundation,  the  space 
between  being  filled  with  gravel  and  tar. 

A  twenty-ton  Aveling  &  Porter  steam  road-roller  was  purchased 
in  1887.  During  the  first  months  it  was  constantly  in  mud  holes, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  there  were  but  few  street  foundations  in  the 
city  strong  enough  to  hold  it  up.  All  contractors  were  required  to 
use  it,  however,  and  the  result  has  been  far  more  faithful  work  on 

*  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Public  Works  of  Duluth, 
Minn.,  for  the  year  ending  February  28,  1889.  William  B.  Fuller,  City 
Engineer. 

t*x,  53- 


WOOD    PAVEMENTS.  11$ 

their  part  than  could  have  been  secured  in  any  other  manner.  In 
the  preparation  of  street  foundations  and  for  rolling  macadam  paving 
this  roller  has  been  invaluable. 

CEDAR-BLOCK    PAVEMENT    AT    LEAVENWORTH,    KANSAS.* 

Noticing  in  an  exchange  a  discussion  regarding  proposed  new 
pavements  for  Leavenworth,  the  statement  that  a  cedar -block  pave- 
merit  on  a  certain  street  had  proved  a  failure,  we  wrote  to  City 
Engineer  George  T.  Nelles,  asking  for  facts  and  details  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  pavement  was  laid.  The  following  is  from  his 
reply : 

The  pavements  in  question  were  put  down  on  two  of  our  principal 
business  streets  and  on  one  resident  street,  and  consisted  of  y-inch  sound 
white-cedar  blocks  4  to  8  inches  in  diameter  laid  on  a  6-inch  concrete 
foundation.  The  work  was  all  done  in  accordance  with  the  specifications 
in  general  use  for  this  class  of  work.  The  work  was  done  during  the 
summer  and  fall  of  1887,  so  that  the  reliable  test  of  use  cannot  be  brought 
into  play.  So  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  from  my  knowledge  of  the  manner 
in  which  the  work  was  done,  and  from  present  indications,  the  work  will 
prove  as  permanent  and  lasting  as  any  pavement  of  this  class.  The  cedar 
blocks  were  of  unexceptionally  good  quality,  live  and  sound,  and  free  from 
the  usual  imperfections  of  this  class  of  material.  The  assertion  made  in 
the  clipping  herewith  to  the  contrary  is  absolutely  without  foundation. 
Owing  to  the  inferior  quality  of  the  sand  and  broken  stone  available  here 
for  carrying  on  works  of  any  magnitude,  the  concrete  foundation  may  not 
be  up  to  the  standard.  Still,  I  confidently  believe  it  is  ample  for  the 
purpose,  and  that  it  will  outwear  a  great  many  sets  of  cedar  blocks.  I 
have  recently  had  occasion  to  examine  some  of  the  concrete  laid  during 
freezing  weather  last  fall,  and  found  that,  although  not  perfectly  set,  it  has 
not  been  in  the  least  disturbed  by  the  frost  or  the  traffic  over  it.  I  have 
not  arrived  at  the  true  inwardness  of  the  attack  on  cedar  pavements,  but 
think  that  the  idea  that  the  pavements  laid  last  year  are  failures  arose 
from  the  fact  that  several  very  ugly  settlements  have  taken  place  where  the 
pavement  was  laid  over  heavy  fills,  which,  until  repaired,  greatly  injures 
the  appearance  of  the  work  ;  and  from  the  fact  that  the  blocks  raise  along 
the  street-car  line,  which  was  put  down  without  cross- ties  by  laying  the 
stringers  directly  on  the  concrete,  and  being  dependent  entirely  on  the 
blocks  to  hold  it  down,  and,  in  consequence,  has  raised  the  blocks  in  places. 
There  is  nothing,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  connected  with  this  work  that  can  be 
cited  as  an  experience  with  cedar  block  pavements. 

COST     AND     DURABILITY.f 

A  Report  on  Pavements,  made  to  the  Common  Ccuncil  of 
Topeka,  Kan.,  says  :  Wood  pavements  of  the  old  varieties  are  con- 
ceded to  have  proved  failures.  The  white  cedar  blocks  (more  prop- 
erly cypress)  sawed  from  small  trees  are  being  laid  in  Chicago, 
Kansas  City,  Omaha,  upon  concrete  foundations  and  also  on  boards. 

*xvii,  323-     t*v,  375- 


114  WOOD    PAVEMENTS. 

The  life  of  the  latter  they  consider  to  be  about  three  years.  That 
on  concrete  would  cost  in  Topeka  about  the  same  as  granite  block, 
or  sheet  asphalt,  and  if  the  cypress  blocks  were  creosoted,  as  are  the 
pine  blocks  now  used  in  England  and  France,  the  cost  would  be 
still  greater. 

PLANING    DOWN    A    WOOD    PAVEMENT.* 

Some  recent  experiments  in  Manchester,  dealing  with  the  ques- 
tion of  repairing  roadways  laid  with  wood  blocks,  are  of  consider- 
able interest  to  vestries  and  public  boards.  Hitherto,  owing  to  the 
unequal  wear  of  the  blocks  in  any  one  roadj  resulting  from  the 
varying  density  of  the  wood,  it  has  frequently  been  necessary  to 
pull  up  and  relay  a  road  with  new  blocks,  discarding  all  the  old 
ones,  of  which,  possibly,  a  great  number  may  have  had  good  "  life  " 
in  them  still.  To  obviate  this  necessity  Mr.  A.  C.  Bicknell,  of  the 
Sandycroft  Foundry  Company,  Chester,  has  invented  a  machine  of 
traction-engine  type,  self-propelling,  having  in  front  a  revolving 
table  fitted  with  cutters.  A  section  of  a  road  was  laid  with  old 
blocks,  which  had  been  discarded  as  unfit  for  further  service.  The 
method  of  laying  was  the  usual  one,  in  cement  and  sand,  and  being 
composed  of  old  blocks  pitted  with  sand  and  gravel  the  experimental 
road  presented  the  normal  features  of  an  old  road  requiring  repair. 
When  several  days  had  elapsed,  to  allow  the  cement  to  set,  the 
machine  was  brought  to  work,  the  cutting-head  being  gauged  to  cut 
one-half  inch  below  the  surface  of  the  lowest  face  of  the  roadway. 
In  the  course  of  the  work  it  was  necessary  to  take  off  three  inches 
from  some  of  the  blocks,  and  the  result  throughout  was  satisfactory. 
The  system  of  planing  down  a  roadway  is  certainly  novel. 


*xiv,  224. 


CHAPTER  III. 


ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS. 

THE    NATURE    AND    USES   OF    ASPHALT.* 

ASPHALT  is  a  variety  of  bitumen,  found  in  a  native  condition 
and  not  manufactured,  and  in  a  solid  form  is  commercially  known 
as  glance  pitch.  Glance  pitch  is  found  in  limited  quantities  in 
various  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  in  Texas.  It  is  very  pure 
and  is  used  to  make  a  high  grade  of  varnish,  but  its  brittleness 
makes  it  useless  for  paving  or  roofing  compounds. 

Occurrence. — The  asphalt  of  Trinidad  is  found  in  a  so-called 
"lake  "about  130  feet  above  the  sea-level,  on  the  island  of  that 
name.  The  "lake "is  a  level  tract,  about  114  acres  in  area,  of 
brownish  material  of  an  earthy  appearance.  It  is  sufficiently  hard 
to  bear  the  weight  of  carts  and  animals,  and  yet  its  consistency  is 
such  that  excavations  fifteen  feet  in  depth  are  filled  up  by  the  flow 
of  adjacent  material  in  a  few  months.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
amount  of  asphalt  in  the  lake  is  upwards  of  six  million  tons.  On 
partial  analysis  it  yields  approximately  40  per  cent,  of  pure  bitumen, 
40  per  cent,  of  earthy  and  vegetable  matter,  and  20  per  cent,  of 
water.  The  material  is  heated  in  large  tanks  at  a  temperature  of 
about  300°  Fahr.,  to  drive  off  the  water  and  let  the  larger  portions 
of  the  earthy  matter  settle  and  the  vegetable  matter  to  be  skimmed 
off  the  surface.  This  refined  asphalt  contains  about  60  per  cent,  of 
pure  bitumen  and  40  per  cent,  of  finely  divided  earthy  matter 
invisible  to  the  eye.  This  material  is  too  brittle  for  commercial  use, 
and  it  is  therefore  mixed  with  a  heavy,  dark  oil,  known  as  the 
residuum  of  petroleum,  in  the  proportion  of  six  parts  of  asphalt  to 
one  of  residuum.  This  is  the  material  so  largely  used  in  paving  and 
roofing  compositions. 

On  the  coast  of  California,  near  Santa  Barbara,  and  also  in 
certain  portions  of  Colorado,  Utah  and  New  Mexico,  are  found 
large  beds  of  sandstone  containing  from  15  per  cent,  to  20  per  cent, 
of  bitumen.  Recently  this  material  has  been  used  for  paving  in 
cities  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  in  use  long  enough 
to  prove  its  desirability. 

*  A  paper  read  by  Captain  F.  V.  Greene,  Vice-President  of  the  Barber 
Asphalt  Paving  Company,  before  the  Society  of  Arts  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  and  published  in  the  Boston  Transcript. — 
xix,  258. 


Il6  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  in  France  and  Switzerland,  in  Sicily, 
in  parts  of  Italy,  in  Spain,  and  in  Hanover,  there  are  very  large  beds 
of  a  fine  amorphous  limestone  naturally  impregnated  with  bitumen, 
and  it  is  from  these  mines  that  the  asphalt  pavements  of  various 
cities  in  Europe  have  been  obtained.  Those  most  suitable  for 
paving  contain  about  10  per  cent,  of  bitumen  and  90  per  cent,  of 
fine  limestone. 

Uses. — The  uses  of  asphalt  may  be  divided  into  five  classes — 
viz.:  ist,  as  a  varnish  for  paint;  2d,  as  an  insulating  material ;  3d, 
as  a  water-proofing  material ;  4th,  as  a  cement  in  ordinary  construc- 
tion ;  5th,  as  a  cement  in  roofing  and  paving  compounds. 

In  its  natural  state  it  is  too  brittle  for  any  of  these  purposes. 
For  varnish  it  is  mixed  with  oil  of  turpentine,  linseed  oil  and 
shellac.  Such  varnishes  are  used  on  leather,  producing  the  so-called 
patent  leather,  and  on  iron,  the  black  japan  varnish  being  well 
known. 

For  insulating  compounds  the  exact  mixture  is  not  divulged. 
For  water-proofing  arches  and  similar  construction  it  is  sometimes 
used  in  the  form  of  a  layer  of  mastic,  made  from  bituminous  lime- 
stone spread  over  the  arch,  and  sometimes  as  a  cement  between  the 
joints  of  the  bricks,  the  bricks  being  heated  and  dipped  in  hot 
asphalt,  and  the  joints  poured  with  similar  material  after  the  bricks 
are  laid. 

As  a  roofing  material^  asphalt  is  used  in  the  form  of  asphalt 
cement,  very  similar  to  paving  cement.  The  roof  is  covered  with 
one  or  more  layers  of  felt ;  on  this  a  layer  of  the  cement  is  poured, 
and  before  it  has  cooled  fine  gravel  or  pebbles  are  spread  over  it. 

Asphalt  Parements. — The  amount  of  asphalts  used  for  paving 
is  about  95  per  cent,  of  the  total  consumption. 

I  shall  endeavor  to  show  that  the  asphalt  pavement  is  the  latest 
and,  all  things  considered,  the  most  satisfactory  solution  of  the 
paving  problem  yet  devised.  It  is  not  as  durable  as  cast-steel,  nor  as 
noiseless  as  velvet,  nor  does  it  afford  as  firm  a  foot-hold  as  the  loose 
earth  of  a  race-track.  But  it  is  much  smoother  and  less  noisy  than 
stone,  much  more  durable  than  wood  or  macadam,  is  water-proof, 
contains  no  decaying  vegetable  matter,  can  be  kept  perfectly  clean 
at  comparatively  small  expense,  is  less  slippery  under  ordinary 
conditions  (as  shown  by  careful  observations  in  Europe  and 
America)  than  either  wood  or  stone,  and  it  enables  larger  loads  to 
be  drawn  by  the  same  force  and  with  less  wear  on  vehicles  than  any 
other  form  of  pavement  ever  used.  It  has  thus  many  advantages 
and  fewer  defects  than  other  pavements  in  common  use. 

The  speaker  next  gave  a  brief  history  of  pavements  in  general, 
so  as  to  trace  the  origin  and  development  of  asphalt  pavements. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  117 

Macadam. — He  said  that  no  improvement  has  ever  been 
devised  upon  MacAdam's  system  as  a  road  covering  outside  of 
cities.  It  has  also  been  widely  introduced  within  cities ;  London 
has  about  600  miles  and  Paris  100  miles  of  it  to-day.  In  America 
it  has  always  been  popular  in  New  England  cities — three-fourths  of 
the  streets  of  Boston  are  paved  with  it — but  it  has  not  found  favor 
in  other  cities  except  on  streets  reserved  for  pleasure  driving  only. 

Its  advantages  are  a  firm  foot-hold  for  horses,  and  a  reasonably 
smooth  surface.  Its  defects  are  heavy  resistance  to  traffic,  great 
cost  of  maintenance,  and  the  impossibility  of  keeping  it  clean. 
When  sprinkled  it  is  always  muddy,  and  when  dry  it  is  invariably 
dusty  These  defects  are  inherent  and  cannot  be  remedied.  The 
Paris  Budget  shows  that  it  costs  over  $900,000  per  annum  in  that 
city  for  the  single  item  of  repairs  to  macadam  pavements.  This  is 
equivalent  to  45  cents  per  yard  per  year.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
annual  cost  of  repairing  the  macadam  pavements  of  Beacon  Street, 
Boston,  is  50  cents  per  yard. 

Stone  Pavements. — Stone  pavements  were  next  taken  up,  and 
figures  presented  showing  that  the  cost  of  repairs  was  from  five  to 
twelve  cents  per  yard  per  year,  while  the  annual  cost  for  laying 
and  maintaining  the  best  quality  of  granite-block  pavements  on 
concrete  foundations  is  twenty-six  cents  per  yard. 

Wood  Pavements. — Wooden  pavements  were  shown  to  cost 
annually  for  laying  and  maintaining  about  sixty-one  cents  per  yard, 
but  it  is  now  claimed  by  its  advocates  in  London  to  be  forty-two 
cents  per  yard  under  moderately  heavy  traffic,  or  about  two-thirds 
the  cost  of  macadam  under  the  same  conditions.  Captain  Greene 
gave  the  experience  of  Washington  as  a  warning  against  its  use. 
Upwards  of  $4,000,000,  derived  from  a  loan  not  yet  paid  off,  were 
expended  in  that  city  under  the  Shepherd  government  of  1871-74 
in  laying  fifty  miles  of  wood  pavements.  They  proved  a  complete 
failure  in  a  few  years,  and  have  all-  been  since  replaced  with  asphalt 
at  a  little  more  than  half  the  original  cost  of  the  wood. 

Rock  Asphalt  Pavement. — Bituminous  limestone  or  rock  asphalt 
began  to  be  used  for  paving  in  Paris  in  1854,  in  London  in  1869,  and 
in  Berlin  about  1880;  and  its  use  has  been  continued  with  success. 
The  total  area  of  this  pavement  in  use  now  in  Europe  is  about 
1,500,000  square  yards,  covering  a  length  of  about  ninety  miles  of 
roadway. 

A  uniform  system  has  been  used  in  laying  in  all  the  cities.  A 
solid  bed  of  concrete  is  used  to  give  a  foundation.  On  this  the 
asphalt  surface  is  laid  about  2  \  inches  thick.  The  preparation  of 
this  surface  requires  great  care  and  skill.  The  asphalt  rock,  as  it  is 
quarried  from  the  mines,  is  crushed  in  a  rock  breaker  to  a  size  of 


Il8  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

about  three  inches.  These  are  then  passed  through  toothed  rollers 
and  again  through  smooth  rollers  until  the  rock  is  reduced  to  pow- 
der. This  is  then  heated  in  revolving  cylinders  to  a  temperature  of 
about  280°  Fahr.,  and  the  heated  powder  is  carried  in  carts  to  the 
street  where  it  is  to  be  used.  There  it  is  spread  on  the  concrete 
and  raked  with  hot  iron  rakes  until  it  forms  a  uniform  layer  of  loose 
powder,  about  twice  its  ultimate  thickness.  This  is  then  quickly 
compressed  by  pounding  with  hot  iron  rammers,  after  which  a  small 
amount  of  hydraulic  cement  is  swept  over  the  surface  and  the 
pounding  is  continued  until  the  pavement  will  no  longer  yield  under 
the  rammer.  It  is  left  until  the  next  morning  to  cool,  when  the 
street  is  opened  to  traffic. 

Cost  and  Maintenance. — In  London  the  first  cost  has  been  about 
$3-75  Per  yard,  and  the  maintenance  eighteen  cents  a  yard  per  year, 
the  street  to  be  delivered  at  the  end  of  seventeen  years  as  good  as 
new.  Including  first  cost,  the  total  expense  is  forty  cents  per  yard 
per  year. 

Tar  Pavement. — The  success  of  rock  asphalt  pavement  in  Europe 
gave  rise  to  a  demand  for  such  pavements  in  America,  but  the  expense 
of  transportation  of  the  rock  from  France  was  so  great  that  inventors 
sought  to  find  a  substitute.  They  first  tried  the  tar  produced  in 
large  quantities  at  the  gas  works,  which  they  erroneously  supposed 
to  possess  the  same  qualities  as  the  natural  bitumen  in  the  asphalt 
rock.  This  was  combined  with  sand,  limestone,  sulphur,  sawdust, 
etc.  The  material  did  not  look  unlike  the  real  asphalt,  and  a  craze 
for  such  pavement  started  in  Washington  in  1871  and  spread  all  over 
the  country. 

The  majority  of  these  efforts  were  complete  and  costly  failures, 
and  as  they  all  claimed  to  be  asphalt,  the  result  was  to  create  a 
prejudice  against  all  pavements  of  that  character,  which  it  required 
years  of  careful  experiment  and  proof  to  overcome.  The  defect  of 
them  all  lay  in  the  tar,  which  contained  volatile  matters  which  evap- 
orated under  the  influence  of  the  sun,  and  left  the  pavement  a  mass 
of  dry  black  powder. 

Trinidad  Asphalt  Pavement. — A  Belgian  chemist  conceived  the 
idea  of  using  the  asphalt  of  Trinidad  as  the  cementing  material, 
knowing  that  it  had  been  exposed  for  centuries  to  a  tropical  sun, 
and  that  the  sun's  rays  could  have  no  further  effect  on  it.  With  this 
he  combined  clean  sharp  sand  and  a  small  amount  of  powdered 
limestone.  The  sand  in  it  afforded  a  firmer  foot-hold  for  horses. 
It  was  used  on  a  part  of  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  in  Washington,  in 
1876,  the  asphalt-rock  pavement  of  Paris  was  used  on  the  other  part, 
and  they  have  been  in  constant  use  ever  since.  The  French  pave- 
ment proved  more  slippery  and  more  costly  than  the  Trinidad,  and 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  Iig 

no  more  of  it  was  laid  ;  but  the  Trinidad  asphalt  gave  entire  satis- 
faction, and  has  been  constantly  laid  with  succeeding  years,  until 
now  its  area  in  Washington  alone  is  but  little  short  of  one  million 
yards.  After  seven  years'  successful  use  in  Washington,  other  cities 
began  to  use  it,  Buffalo  being  the  first,  and  it  now  rivals  Washing- 
ton in  extent  of  its  use.  It  is  now  used  in  thirty-four  cities,  the  total 
area  being  about  four  million  yards. 

These  pavements  are  laid  on  a  solid  foundation  of  concrete  six 
inches  in  thickness.  The  asphalt  surface  is  2^  inches  thick,  laid  in 
a  similar  manner  to  those  in  Paris.  But  the  asphalt  is  prepared 
quite  differently.  The  refined  asphalt  is  mixed  with  the  residuum 
of  petroleum  to  make  the  cement.  This  is  heated  at  300°  Fahr.,  and 
the  sand  is  also  heated  to  the  same  degree  ;  these  are  mixed  in  a 
large  box  in  which  agitators  are  constantly  revolving,  and  there  a 
complete  mechanical  mixture  is  formed.  The  hot  powder  is  then 
taken  to  the  street,  spread  the  proper  thickness,  and  immediately 
compressed  by  large  steam  rollers,  weighing  from  five  to  ten  tons. 

The  cost  of  maintenance  for  the  Washington  asphalt  pavements 
is  about  two  cents  per  yard  per  year.  On  many  of  them,  now  ten 
years  old,  no  repairs  of  any  kind  have  been  made,  and  they  are  still 
in  perfect  order.  These  streets  are  subject  to  very  light  traffic,  and 
are  kept  clean.  In  other  cities  where  the  pavements  are  not  kept 
clean,  and  the  traffic  is  heavier — in  some  cases  the  most  destructive 
traffic  in  American  cities — the  expense  is  much  larger.  But  under 
ordinary  conditions  the  cost  of  maintenance  does  not  exceed  ten 
cents  per  yard  for  a  long  term  of  years.  Including  first  cost,  the 
total  expense  of  maintenance  for  seventeen  years  would  be  about 
thirty  cents  per  yard  per  year.  From  this  it  appears  that  asphalt  is 
a  little  more  expensive  than  stone,  but  it  is  the  cheapest  of  the 
smooth  pavements. 

Asphalt  Block  Pavement. — Asphalt  blocks  have  been  tried,  but 
they  are  deficient  in  durability  under  heavy  traffic,  but  they  have 
been  very  satisfactory  on  residence  streets  of  light  traffic.  These 
can  be  laid  as  ordinary  paving  stones,  thus  doing  away  with  an 
expensive  plant  in  every  city. 

Traction  and  Cleanliness. — On  asphalt  pavements  the  same  force 
will  draw  a  load  three  times  as  heavy  as  on  the  ordinary  stone  pave- 
ment. The  former  can  be  kept  perfectly  clean  at  small  expense  ; 
the  latter  has  one-fifth  of  its  service  composed  of  joints  filled  with 
stable  filth,  which  cannot  be  removed  in  cleaning. 

If  some  one  gives  voice  to  the  current  belief  that  horses  are  con- 
stantly falling  on  the  asphalt,  I  will  show  him  the  result  of  careful 
observations  in  ten  different  cities  on  736,000  horses,  of  which  84 
fell  on  stone  pavements,  and  only  71  on  asphalt.  The  proprietors 


120  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

of  the  livery  stables  of  Washington  and  Buffalo  say  that  they  inva- 
riably use  the  asphalt  in  preference  to  the  stone  pavement,  and  that 
there  is  far  less  injury  to  horses,  as  well  as  to  their  vehicles,  on  the 
asphalt. 

ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS   IN    THE    UNITED   STATES.* 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Improvements  of  Cleveland, 
O.,  City  Engineer  Walter  P.  Rice  made  the  following  report  of  his 
investigations  of  asphalt  pavements  : 

Material. — The  best  material  for  pavement  purposes  seems  to  be  the 
Trinidad  asphalt,  which  is  controlled  by  the  following  companies  :  Barber 
Asphalt  Paving  Company,  Warren-Scharf  Asphalt  Paving  Company,  and 
National  Vulcanite  Company.  The  latter  company  is  able  to  command 
asphalt  only  for  laying  pavement  other  than  the  Barber,  while  the  two 
former  lay  pavement  under  the  same  specifications,  but  in  separate  terri- 
tory. There  can  therefore  be  no  competition  and  but  one  bid  can  be 
received  under  the  same  specification,  and  to  all  practical  intents  cities  or 
individuals  using  the  street  pavements  are  subject  to  such  dictation  as  may 
be  imposed  as  to  cost  of  all  repairs  and  resurfacing. 

Washington  and  Buffalo  Pavements.  —  I  examined  over  twenty 
streets  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  paved  with  asphalt,  vulcanite,  and  coal-tar 
distillate.  The  age  of  these  pavements  ranges  from  five  to  fourteen  years. 
In  general  they  are  in  good  condition,  show  frequent  repairs,  and  are 
subject  to  light  traffic.  Pennsylvania  Avenue  and  K  Street  are  typical 
respectively  of  heavy  and  light  travel.  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  the  pave- 
ment of  which  is  part  Trinidad  and  part  Neufchatel  rock  asphalt,  is  about 
105  feet  between  curb  lines,  age  12  years,  never  resurfaced,  about  10 
per  cent,  of  wearing  surface  gone,  largely  patched  in  places,  lack  of 
uniformity,  some  ruts.  In  K  Street  the  pavement  is  vulcanite,  50  feet 
between  curb  lines,  age  14  years,  never  resurfaced  or  patched,  condition 
almost  perfect.  K  Street  is  used  as  a  standard  of  comparison  in  all 
vulcanite  specifications. 

The  Buffalo  pavements,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  not  yet  of  a  suffi- 
cient age  to  justify  the  formation  of  any  opinion  except  in  case  of  early 
failure,  as  on  Broadway,  paved  three  years  ago,  resurfaced  once  and  giving 
out  again  in  places.  Franklin  Avenue,  paved  with  asphalt  nine  years  ago, 
is  the  oldest  exception  and  without  repairs,  is  in  excellent  condition. 
Cottage  and  Bryant  Streets,  paved  eight  years  ago,  are  in  good  condition. 

Formula  for  Asphalt  and  Vulcanite  Pavements.  —  The  reduced 
formula  for  asphalt  is  :  Asphalt,  13.16  to  15.78  ;  heavy  petroleum  oil,  1.84 
to  2.21 ;  fine  sand,  70.00  to  65.00  ;  pulverized  carbonate  lime,  15.00  to  17.00. 
There  is  little  or  no  bond  between  the  base  and  wearing  surface. 

The  reduced  formula  for  vulcanite  is:  Asphalt,  4.4  percent.;  coal-tar 
distillate,  13.4  per  cent ;  clean  sand,  53.6  per  cent.;  pulverized  stone,  26.8 
per  cent.;  hydraulic  cement,  1.2  per  cent.;  flour  sulphur,  .14  percent.;  air- 
slacked  lime,  .28  per  cent. 

The  main  differences  are  the  percentages  of  asphalt  and  the  value 
of  coal-tar  distillate  versus  petroleum.  The  vulcanite  is  the  cheaper  as 
regards  first  cost,  although  costing  slightly  more  for  maintenance. 

*xvii,  361. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  121 

Defects  of  Asphalt  and  Vulcanite  Pavements. — Asphalt  pavements 
are  liable  to  the  following  defects  :  First,  the  formation  of  "  wave  sur- 
face," especially  on  grades  (probably  due  to  lack  of  cohesion  between  the 
wearing  surface  and  base).  Second,  the  formation  of  transverse  cracks, 
more  apt  to  occur  in  wide  roads  and  intersections  ai?d  undoubtedly  due  to 
contraction  and  expansion,  caused  by  variations  of  temperature.  Third,  a 
rot  or  disintegration  takes  place  in  the  gutters  and  necessitates  the  use  of 
stone  or  a  coating  of  coal-tar  ;  this  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case  with  vul- 
canite. Vulcanite  or  coal-tar  distillate  pavements  :  First,  are  affected  at 
a  lower  temperature  than  asphalt,  and  sometimes  present  evidence  of  a  flow 
of  material  toward  the  gutters  during  warm  weather  often  rising  nearly  to 
the  top  of  the  curb  and  necessitating  a  cutting  away  of  the  material.  This 
is  not  observable  in  the  asphalt.  Second,  vulcanite  is  not  so  liable  to  trans- 
verse cracks  (the  forerunners  of  repairs),  or  to  wave  surfaces  as  the  asphalt, 
on  account  of  greater  longitudinal  strength  due  to  a  closer  union  of  base 
and  wearing  surface.  On  the  other  hand,  in  making  repairs  the  wearing 
surface  of  asphalt  can  be  easily  removed  and  renewed,  while  in  the  vulcanite 
no  such  separation  can  be  made  and  in  resurfacing  it  is  necessary  to  over- 
lay the  whole  surface.  This  slightly  affects  the  grade  of  the  street  by 
raising  the  same  above  the  curb  grade.  Third,  vulcanite  has  a  more 
granular  surface  than  the  asphalt. 

Sheet  pavements  are  sightly,  pleasant  to  drive  over,  and  easy  to  clean; 
but  if  not  cleaned,  as  might  be  the  case  in  this  city,  any  accumulation  of 
material  would,  from  the  nature  of  the  surface,  be  ground  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  unpleasant  to  travelers  and  detrimental  to  lawns,  the  fine  dust 
being  blown  into  houses  and  stores.  Such  pavements  would  undoubtedly 
on  business  streets  attract  travel  from  parallel  routes,  thereby  compelling 
the  pavement  of  the  latter  with  the  same  material,  as  a  matter  of  self- 
defense,  no  matter  what  might  be  the  ultimate  value  of  the  pavement.  The 
mixture  has  to  be  nicely  tempered,  requires  the  satisfying  of  many  condi- 
tions and  expert  manipulation.  It  is  largely  affected  by  temperature  and 
climatic  conditions.  "  In  extreme  cold  the  surface  cracks  and  becomes  fri- 
able ;  in  extreme  heat  the  surface  rolls  or  creeps  under  traffic,  presenting  a 
wave  surface  uncomfortable  to  travel  over."  In  this  connection  I  would 
state  that  the  temperature  at  Washington  ranges  from  150°  above  zero  in 
summer  to  10°  below  in  winter,  or  160°  Fahr.,  and  Captain  Griffin,  United 
States  Corps  of  Engineers,  of  that  city,  is  authority  for  the  statement  that 
the  Washington  pavements  suffer  more  during  the  three  months  of  winter 
than  during  the  remaining  nine  months  of  the  year. 

The  expense  of  laying  foundations  for  street  pavements  is  a  large  part 
of  the  total  cost,  and  when  the  paving  is  worn  out,  or  a  city  is  tired  of 
repairing  the  same,  then  the  expense  of  removing  the  foundation  will  be 
large,  as  it  is  too  near  the  established  grade  or  curb  grade  to  lay  stone  or 
other  than  sheet  pavement  on.  It  cannot  be  laid  next  to  street-railway 
tracks,  as  it  will  not  stand  the  shearing  action  of  wheels.  The  science  of 
laying  sheet  pavements  is  still  to  a  large  extent  tentative.  That  good  ones 
can  be  laid  has  been  proven,  but  there  is  no  certainty  that  the  standard  can 
be  reached  on  any  particular  street ;  two  separate  batches  of  material 
mixed  under  the  same  formula  and  specification  may  be  totally  unlike  as 
regards  durability. 

Standard  of  Comparison. — In  discussing  sheet  pavements  a  standard 
of  comparison  might  be  outlined  as  follows :  First,  moderate  first  cost  ; 


122  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

second,  durability  ;  third,  minimum  resistance  to  traction  ;  fourth,  secure 
foot-hold  for  horses  ;  fifth,  healthfulness  ;  sixth,  noiselessness. 

Asphalt  vs.  Stone  Pavement. — First,  sheet  pavements  do  not  satisfy 
the  first  requirement  much  better  than  dressed  block  ;  second,  I  should  give 
dressed  block  the  preference  as  regards  durability  and  ultimate  cost ;  third, 
the  resistance  to  traction  is  undoubtedly  less  on  sheet  pavements  ;  fourth, 
such  few  experiments  as  have  been  made  indicate  fewer  accidents  to  horses 
on  sheet  pavements  than  granite,  but  do  not  think  it  would  hold  good  for 
Medina  ;  fifth,  both  sheet  pavements  and  dressed  blocks  are  healthy,  and 
the  asphalt  filling  of  the  latter  sufficiently  fulfills  all  sanitary  requirements  ; 
sixth,  sheet  pavements  perhaps  fulfill  the  last  requirement  better  than 
stone,  but  there  is  the  sharp  click  and  ring  of  the  horse's  hoof,  although  the 
vehicle  itself  makes  little  noise.  In  making  repairs  in  the  case  of  a  stone 
pavement  50  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  old  material  can  be  used  over  again  ;  it 
is  worthless  in  the  case  of  a  sheet  pavement. 

Finally,  I  consider  sheet  pavements  a  luxury,  rendering  any  city 
attractive  where  successfully  laid  and  maintained.  ,  Their  introduction 
should  be  simultaneous  with  the  adoption  of  a  continual  repair  system,  to 
secure  the  best  results.  There  is  small  choice  between  the  asphalt  and  vul- 
canite pavements.  I  would  advise  against  laying  asphalt  or  vulcanite  pave- 
ments on  any  of  the  thoroughfares  of  this  city,  and  would  further  advise 
that  the  city  should  only  consider  its  introduction  as  an  original  pavement 
and  not  on  the  repaving  of  any  street.  Further,  if  property-owners  are 
desirous  of  obtaining  these  pavements,  the  city  should,  in  my  estimation, 
demand  not  less  than  ten  years'  guarantee,  the  pavement  being  turned  over 
in  good  condition  at  the  expiration  of  that  period. 

REGARDING    W.    P.    RICE'S    REPORT    ON    ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.* 

NEW  YORK,  June  9,  1888. 

SIR  :  I  have  been  reading  the  report  of  Mr.  Rice,  City  Civil  Engineer 
of  Cleveland,  quoted  in  your  issue  of  May  26,  on  asphalt  pavements  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  following  this  series  I  infer  it  is  your  purpose  to  pub- 
lish abstracts  of  official  statements,  whether  you  agree  with  the  conclusions 
of  the  writer  or  not.  With  regard  to  this  report  of  Mr.  Rice,  I  think  it  is 
well  to  comment  on  some  of  his  inferences  and  conclusions. 

Is  not  the  following  standard  of  comparison  adopted  by  him  for  pave- 
ments— viz.:  "First,  moderate  first  cost;  second,  durability;  third,  mini- 
mum resistance  to  traction  ;  fourth,  secure  foot-hold  for  horses  ;  fifth,  health- 
fulness  ;  sixth,  noiselessness,"  as  set  forth  in  your  abstract  of  his  report, 
susceptible  of  a  better  arrangement  ? 

Pavements  are  primarily  intended  for  the  convenience  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  those  towns  or  cities  which  possess  them,  and  the  health  of  those 
who  live  beside  them  seems  a  consideration  of  the  first  importance.  Put- 
ting moderate  first  cost  and  durability  first  would  lead  Mr.  Rice,  if  a  logical 
man,  to  clothe  himself  in  a  flannel  shirt  and  stogey  boots,  articles  of  less 
first  cost  and  greater  economy  in  maintenance  and  repairs  than  those  ordin- 
arily worn  by  persons  in  his  position.  Fortunately  for  the  arguments  of 
those  who  contend  for  good  pavements,  noiselessness  and  minimum  resist- 
ance to  traction  are  closely  associated  with  healthfulness  in  pavements. 
For  the  nearest  approach  to  a  perfect  pavement,  in  a  sanitary  view,  seems 

ttxviii,  30. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  1 23 

accomplished  by  a  pavement  which  is  impervious  to  fluids,  presents  no 
inequalities  in  which  solid  and  fluid  faecal  or  other  matter  can  lodge,  and 
admits  of  cheap  and  thorough  cleaning.  This  evidently  calls  for  a  sheet 
pavement,  for  no  block  pavement  is  laid  that  is  free  from  inequalities,  and 
however  well  the  joints  are  filled  with  concrete  or  a  mastic  of  pitch  or  bitu- 
men, the  filling  in  the  joints  will  wear  out  faster  than  the  stone,  or  even 
woodblocks  wear,  leaving  shallow  but  numerous  cavities  to  hold  dirt  and 
give  off,  at  least,  unpleasant  exhalations  under  the  heat  of  the  summer  sun, 
while  all  sheet  pavements,  on  the  contrary,  when  made  either  from  asphalt 
or  bitumen,  are  virtually  non-absorptive  ;  that  is,  the  small  amount  of 
water  absorbed  by  asphalte  comprime,  or  compressed  rock  asphalt,  and 
pavements  in  which  bitumen  is  the  base,  like  those  of  Washington,  is  a  mere 
matter  of  maintenance,  having  no  sanitary  influence  whatever  ;  while  pave- 
ments of  asphalte  coule,  or  the  mastic  made  from  rock  asphalt,  and  those 
in  which  coal-tar  is  the  basis,  are  free  from  this  objection.  Now  these  sheet 
pavements,  in  addition  to  their  healthfulness,  offer  the  minimum  resistance 
to  traction,  are  on  the  whole  less  slippery  than  any  other  except  wood 
(excluding  macadam),  and  are  undoubtedly  less  noisy  than  any  other  pave- 
ment except  wood.  And  there  is  another  point  which  should  not  be  over- 
looked :  horses,  besides  doing  more  work,  last  longer,  and  there  is  less 
expense  in  repairing  running  gear  and  harness  on  these  pavements  than  on 
any  other. 

There  is  an  apparent  anomaly  in  this  mater  of  pavements  which  your 
correspondent  is  able  only  to  call  attention  to — not  to  explain.  Statisticians 
who  make  such  subjects  their  study  assert  that  the  average  income  per 
annum  in  the  United  States  is  $200,  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  $150,  in 
France  $120,  in  Germany  $100,  and  in  Italy  $80.  Italy  has  long  had  the 
best  maintained  and  constructed  roads.  Berlin,  the  capital  of  Germany, 
has  better  pavements  than  Paris,  while  that  city  until  less  than  a  decade 
since  was  decidedly  better  paved  than  London.  But  in  New  York,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  the  Capitol  city  of  this  country,  one  sighs  for  the  quiet 
and  repose  of  an  active  boiler-shop  when  the  garbage-carts  of  the  city  pass 
through  its  best  residence  streets,  and  Philadelphia,  the  home  of  our  oldest 
and  stateliest  families,  has  "pavements  fanged  with  murderous  stones," 
and  in  most  of  our  cities  one  can  count,  in  the  words  of  Coleridge, 

"two-and-seventy  stenches" — 

"  all  well-defined  and  genuine  stinks  !  " — any  pleasant  summer  day  ;  while 
Washington,  which  has  no  productive  or  other  business  which  is  not  par- 
asitic, has,  considering  its  traffic,  possibly  the  largest  area  of  luxuriously 
and  economically  paved  streets  of  any  city  in  the  world,  and  Buffalo  has 
over  forty  miles  of  noiseless  pavements. 

Washington,  as  is  well  known,  aspires  to  have  the  position  of  the  first 
residence  city  in  our  country,  counting  greatly  on  its  pavements  for  help  in 
reaching  it. 

It  might  be  suggested  that  Mr.  Rice  commenced  his  study  of  pave- 
ments without  previous  expert  knowledge  of  this  branch  of  the  subject,  or 
he  would  never  have  classed  the  compressed  asphalt  on  the  upper  end  of 
Pennsylvania  Avenue  with  the  pavement  made  of  Trinidad  bitumen  on  the 
lower  part,  or  have  failed  to  notice  the  rather  peculiar  outlines  of  the  areas 
repaired  in  the  compressed  asphalt,  so  peculiar  that  persons  unacquainted 
with  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was  laid  might  have  thought  that 
the  areas  were  denuded  as  a  source  of  material  for  making  asphaltic  mastic. 


124  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

I  But  a  little  inquiry  should  have  shown  him  that  the  pavement  had  been  laid 
j  on  a  foundation  not  sufficiently  dry,  and  the  hot  powder  had  drawn  steam 
/  from  the  damp  concrete  on  which  it  was  placed,  which  prevented  the  adhe- 
sion of  the  powder  so  affected,  resulting  in  macaroons,  a  disease  which  was 
prevalent  in  compressed  asphalt  pavements,  till  its  cause  was  ascertained  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  through  the  action  of  the  steam,  separate  masses  about 
the  size  of  almonds,  were  formed  under  the  smooth  surface,  produced  by 
pillonage,  which  had  no  adhesion  to  each  other.  After  three  or  four  years 
these  places  had  to  be  renewed,  and  the  darker  material  in  general  use  in 
Washington,  which  was  used,  gives,  what  otherwise  would  have  been  one 
of  the  finest  pavements  in  any  city,  a  very  patchy  appearance. 

It  is  rather  surprising  to  see  the  statement  that  the  shearing  action  of 
the  wheels  prevent  its  being  laid  next  to  street-railway  tracks,  as  it  is 
thought  all  specifications  now  provide  for  a  toothing  of  granite  blocks  to  be 
laid  on  each  side  of  the  track.  But  this  toothing  should  extend  so  that  the 
wheels  of  a  wide-gauge  truck  should  be  supported  by  it.  While  omnibuses 
were  running  on  Broadway,  between  Seventeenth  and  Twenty-third 
Streets,  where  one  wheel  was  generally  on  the  inside  track,  the  outer 
wheel  cut  into  the  granite  blocks  at  the  rate  of  over  half  an  inch  a  year,  and 
it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  a  material,  which  must  be  more  or  less  plastic, 
not  to  break  up  in  the  winter,  can  stand  the  concentrated  action  of  heavily- 
loaded  wheels  without  being  pushed  out  of  place.  The  frequent  repairs 
now  necessary  on  Chambers  Street  could  be  dispensed  with  if  the  toothing 
was  carried  over  the  outside  tracks  to  cover  the  width  of  broad-gauge  trucks. 

E.  P.  NORTH. 

ASPHALTE*    PAVEMENTS    IN    PARIS.f    = 

The  following  is  an  abstract  translated  from  the  specifications 
and  instructions  issued  in  1884  by  the  Department  of  Bridges  and 
Roads  to  contractors  for  roads  and  pavements  in  Paris  : 

CHAPTER  I. — Object,  Duration  and  Extent  of  the  Enter  prise, — ART.  i. 
Relates  to  the  object  and  conditions  of  the  work. 

ARTICLE  2.  The  work  is  divided  into  five  divisions,  not  more  than 
three  of  which  will  be  awarded  to  one  contractor. 

ARTICLE  3.  Proposals  for  the  first  three  divisions  will  be  received  only 
from  contractors  who  have  already  successfully  executed  important  work 
in  compressed  asphalt.  The  committee  must  be  convinced  that  they  pos- 
sess sufficient  capital  to  assure  the  progress  of  the  work  during  the  period 
of  the  contract,  and  that  they  can  furnish  the  specified  brands  of  asphalt. 

The  necessary  brands  and  samples  must  be  submitted  to  the  committee 
one  month  before  the  award  of  the  contract. 

ARTICLE  4.  The  duration  of  the  contract  is  fixed  at  ten  years,  ending 
March  15,  1894.  The  amount  of  work  is  undetermined,  depending  on  the 
funds  applicable  for  its  payment.  The  total  annual  expense  is  estimated  at 
about  i,ioo,ooofr. 

*  All  asphalte  pavements  in  Paris  are  either  asphalte  comprimi!  or  asphalte  couti, 
that  is,  the  wheelways  are  paved  with  compressed  asphalte,  the  rock  being  powdered, 
heated  and  pressed  in  place,  and  the  sidewalks  are  paved  with  a  bitumous  mastic  made 
of  powdered  rock  asphalte  which  is  melted  by  immersion  in  hot  bitumen  (often  called 
"asphalt  "  in  this  country),  sand  and  gravel  being  added  to  form  a  wearing  surface. 
Crude  bitumen  is  always  refined  by  melting  it  in  refined  bitumen  or  shale  oil,  which 
acts  as  a  flux.  Heating  the  crude  bitumen  alone  will  burn  it.— ED. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  125 

ARTICLE  5.  The  contractors  must  deposit  in  the  municipal  treasury, 
for  the  different  divisions,  a  total  security  of  370,000  fr.  If  the  security  is  in 
money,  interest  will  be  paid  at  three  per  cent. ;  if  bonds  or  deeds,  the  con- 
tractor may  collect  the  income. 

ARTICLE  6.  When  the  owners  of  adjacent  property  pay  the  whole  or 
part  of  the  cost  of  these  works,  the  contractors  must  execute  them  in  the 
same  manner  as  for  the  city  and  under  supervision  of  the  same  officers. 

CHAPTER  II. — Form  and  Dimensions  of  the  Work. — ART.  7.  The 
width  of  the  sidewalks  for  each  locality  will  be  determined  by  the  Admin- 
istration, its  slope  by  the  engineer.  The  curb  between  the  sidewalk  and 
the  roadway  will  not  be  included  in  this  contract. 

ARTICLE  8.  The  pavements  of  asp  halt  e  coule  will  be  formed  of  a  bed 
of  natural  bituminous  mastic,  melted  with  sand,  at  least  0.6  of  an  inch 
thick,  resting  on  a  foundation  of  hydraulic  lime  concrete  4  inches  thick 
which  is  covered  with  0.4  of  an  inch  of  hydraulic  lime  mortar. 

ARTICLE  9.  The  Administration  reserves  the  privilege  of  making  the 
asphalt  roads  on  an  old  pavement  whose  surface  will  be  redressed  and 
coated  with  Portland  cement  to  regulate  the  form. 

CHAPTER  III. — Quality  and  Brand  of  Materials — Preparation  of 
Bitumen  and  Asphalt. — ART.  10.  The  asphalt  rock  must  be  a  homo- 
geneous carbonate  of  lime,  brown,  fine  grained,  of  a  close  texture,  and 
uniformly  impregnated  with  bitumen  so  as  not  to  present  black  or  white 
spots  ;  it  must  be  free  from  iron  pyrites,  and  not  contain  more  than  2  per 
cent,  of  clay,  and  any  portions  producing  less  than  5  per  cent,  of  bitumen 
will  be  rejected. 

The  rock  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  compressed  asphalt  must  be 
obtained  from  the  mines  of  Val  de  Travers,  Switzerland  ;  Volant,  Upper 
Savoy  ;  Pyrimont,  near  Seyssel ;  St.  Jean  de  Maruejols,  Gard  ;  or  from 
other  sources  approved  by  the  Administration. 

For  the  preparation  of  asphalte  coule  there  will  be  accepted,  besides 
the  above,  the  products  of  Lovagny,  Upper  Savoy,  of  Dallay  and  Pont-du- 
Chateau,  Puy-de-D6me  ;  and  such  other  mines  as  give  analogous  mate- 
rials satisfactory  to  the  Administration. 

ARTICLE  n.  The  bitumen  must  be  from  the  mines  of  Lussat  and 
Malintrat,  Puy-de-D6me  ;  or  Maestu,  Spain  ;  or  from  others  having  a  simi- 
lar product  acceptable  to  the  Administration. 

The  bitumen  must  contain  no  foreign  substance,  neither  water,  clay 
nor  light  oils.  When  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  250°  Fahr.,for48 
hours  it  must  not  lose  more  than  3  per  cent,  of  its  weight. 

It  must  be  viscous  at  ordinary  temperature,  never  brittle  nor  liquid  ; 
when  drawn  out  in  threads  it  must  elongate  and  only  break  in  very  fine 
points. 

Trinidad  bitumen  will  be  accepted  if  refined  by  melting  and  decanting 
in  the  contractor's  shops  in  Paris. 

The  necessary  flux  for  this  operation  may  be  either  fine  natural  bitumen 
from  one  of  the  above  sources,  or  shale  oil  from  the  Autun  slate,  excluding 
gas-tar,  the  so-called  fat  bitumens  and  analogous  products. 

The  mixture  of  Trinidad  bitumen  and  shale  oil  must  be  heated  for 
eight  hours,  during  the  first  six  hours  it  must  be  vigorously  stirred,  but 
remain  undisturbed  during  the  last  two  hours  in  order  to  permit  the  impu- 
rities to  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  whence  they  must  be  removed  after 
each  removal  of  the  supernatant  refined  bitumen. 


126  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

The  latter  may  be  employed  immediately  for  compounding  the  mastic 
or  may  be  poured  on  suitable  dry  surfaces. 

The  refined  bitumen  must  not  contain  more  than  25  per  cent,  of  its 
weight  of  clay,  and  must  be  free  from  dirt,  roots,  etc. 

ARTICLE  12.  The  bituminous  mastic  employed  for  new  pavements,  and 
the  repairs  and  renewal  of  old  ones,  will  be  composed  of  a  mixture  of 
powdered  .asphaltic  rock  and  mineral  bitumen. 

The  old  compressed  asphalte  obtained  by  the  removal  of  the  old  roads, 
may,  if  carefully  separated  from  sand  and  all  foreign  matter,  be  substituted 
for  the  asphaltic  rock;  but  artificial  bitumen,  gas-tar,  fat  bitumens  and  bitu- 
mens  with  a  slaty  base  and  all  analogous  products  are  rigidly  proscribed. 

The  asphaltic  rock  must  be  reduced,  cold,  in  the  most  perfect  mechan- 
ical crushers  to  the  finest  possible  powder,  which  must  pass  through  a  sieve 
having  meshes  not  more  than  o.i  of  an  inch  square. 

It  will  be  melted  and  stirred  for  six  hours  with  a  suitable  quantity  of 
mineral  bitumen,  forming  a  mastic  which,  cooled,  presents  a  homogeneous 
mass,  slightly  elastic  and  not  softening  at  a  temperature  of  140°  Fahr.  This 
mastic  must  be  molded  in  blocks  bearing  the  maker's  brand,  its  yield  of 
bitumen  must  not  be  less  than  fifteen  per  cent,  nor  more  than  eighteen  per 
cent,  of  the  total  weight. 

ARTICLE  13.  The  surfaces  of  asphalte  coule  of  the  first  class  must  be 
formed  of  the  mastic  described  in  Article  12,  of  mineral  bitumen,  and  of 
sharp  sand,  clean  and  dry,  in  the  proportion  of  100  parts  by  weight  of  mas- 
tic, four  parts  of  bitumen,  and  sixty  parts  of  sand.  The  sand,  perfectly 
dry,  will  be  successively  added  in  the  boiler  to  the  melted  mixture  of  bitu- 
men and  crushed  mastic  blocks  which  must  be  stirred  for  at  least  eight 
hours.  It  is  forbidden  to  make  the  bitumen  in  the  movable  boilers  intended 
only  for  its  transportation. 

ARTICLE  14.  The  Administration  will  permit  in  certain  cases  the  sur- 
faces of  asphalte  coule  to  be  composed  of  100  parts  by  weight  of  new  mas- 
tic, ten  parts  of  bitumen,  sixty  parts  of  sand,  and  170  parts  of  old  bitumen 
from  worn-out  sidewalks,  and  carefully  separated  from  all  sand  and  foreign 
materials. 

The  classification  must  in  all  cases  be  precisely  stated  in  the  bill  accom- 
panying each  load. 

ARTICLE  15.  The  powdered  asphalte,  mechanically  crushed  according 
to  Article  12,  must,  when  intended  for  the  composition  of  asphalte  corn- 
prime  contain  not  less  than  seven  per  cent,  and  not  more  than  thirteen  per 
cent,  of  its  weight  of  bitumen,  the  Administration  reserving  the  right  to  fix 
the  exact  proportion  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case  and  under 
the  following  conditions  : 

1.  The  rocks  shall  not  differ  except  in  their  yield  of  bitumen,  which 
must  not  be  less  than  five  per  cent. 

2.  The  pieces  of  rock  must  be  mixed  before  crushing,  or  if  mixed  in 
the  powdered  state  it  must  pass  through  the  crusher  again. 

The  mixture  of  old  asphalte  from  the  removal  of  worn-out  pavements 
with  powdered  new  asphalte  is  forbidden. 

ARTICLE  16.  The  powdered  asphalte  must  be  raised  to  a  uniform  tem- 
perature of  248°  to  266°  Fahr.  in  rotators  mechanically  turned  in  a  uniform 
and  continuous  manner  which  shall  prevent  adherence  and  burning. 

The  apparatus  must  be  of  the  most  perfect  type,  and  the  powder  must  be 
maintained  at  the  required  temperature  long  enough  to  expel  all  watery  vapo  r . 


•ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  127 

The  use  of  machines  called  decrepitoirs  is  forbidden,  either  to  reduce 
the  rock  to  powder  or  warm  the  powder. 

ARTICLE  17.  One  month  before  the  award  the  competitors  must  deposit 
in  the  Chief  Engineer's  office  for  each  division  of  the  public  roads,  and  in 
the  testing  laboratory  :  (i)  samples  of  asphalte  rock  and  natural  bitumen 
which  they  wish  to  use  ;  (2)  blocks  of  mastic  ;  (3)  samples  of  refined  Trini- 
dad bitumen  and  shale  oil  ;  (4)  a  statement  of  the  composition  of  the  mas- 
tics and  the  brands,  compositions  and  proportions  of  the  asphaltic  rocks 
which  they  propose  to  use. 

The  samples  of  rock  and  bitumen  must  bear  the  signature  of  the  con- 
tractor and  the  maker's  brand. 

During  the  period  of  the  contract  all  materials  used  must  conform  to 
the  samples  deposited  and  bear  the  same  brands.  If  it  is  wished  to  use 
other  material  they  must  be  submitted  to  and  accepted  by  the  Administra- 
tion, and  samples  deposited. 

ARTICLE  18.  7 he  sand  will  be  dredged  from  the  channel  of  the  Seine 
above  La  Marne  ;  sand  dredged  opposite  or  below  Paris  will  be  rejected. 

Sand  intended  for  the  preparation  of  the  surfaces  of  melted  bitumen 
must  be  free  from  all  earthy  and  foreign  matter ;  it  must  be  sharp  and  dry, 
and  separated  by  successive  screenings  from  all  grains  less  than  0.08  or 
more  than  0.16  of  an  inch  in  any  dimension,  and  conform  to  the  samples 
deposited. 

Sand  intended  for  mortar  must  be  of  the  same  kind  and  quality  ;  no 
grains  must  be  larger  than  \  inch  in  any  dimension. 

Sand  from  the  seashore  may  be  specially  admitted  if  it  is  of  first  qual- 
ity, perfectly  pure  and  well  washed,  and  has  been  dredged,  but  a  less  price 
will  be  allowed  for  it  than  for  sand  from  the  Seine. 

ARTICLE  19.  Gravel  for  beton  must  pass  through  a  ring  2f  inches  in 
diameter,  and  must  not  be  able  to  pass  through  a  ring  f  of  an  inch  in  diam- 
eter ;  it  must  be  freed  by  abundant  washing  from  earth  and  all  foreign 
materials,  and  all  round  or  smooth  pebbles  must  be  rejected  or  broken. 

ARTICLE  20.  The  lime  must  be  hydraulic,  powdered  and  delivered  at 
the  yards  in  sealed  sacks,  marked  with  the  manufacturer's  name,  and  pre- 
senting no  exterior  seams  or  patches.  It  must  be  provided  from  the  kilns 
of  Moulineaux,  Mancelliere,  Echoisy,  Ville-sous-la-Ferte  Raincy,  Bougival, 
Coucou,  or  from  some  other  source  recognized  as  at  least  equally  good. 

Vassy  cement  must  come  from  the  works  of  Grenan,  Millot,  Gariel,  or 
Prevost.  Portland  cement  must  come  from  the  works  of  Famchon, 
Boulogne-sur-mer  ;  or  Quillot  Freres  near  Lezinnes.  The  cement  must  be 
furnished  in  sacks,  bearing  the  brand  and  seal  of  the  works,  the  seal  of  the 
city,  and  presenting  no  external  seams  or  patches.  Any  sack  not  satisfying 
the  above  requirements  that  is  found  in  the  yards  will  be  immediately 
rejected  and  the  contractor  fined. 

CHAPTER  IV. — Execution  of  Work. — ART.  21.  The  contractor  will 
make  the  necessary  excavations  indicated  by  the  grade  marks  placed  for 
them.  After  the  concrete  is  laid  the  iron  or  wooden  grade  stakes  must  be 
withdrawn  and  the  holes  immediately  filled  with  concrete  and  mortar. 
When  the  excavation  does  not  exceed  two  inches  in  depth,  and  the  haul  is 
not  more  than  100  feet,  the  excavations  will  be  considered  as  simple  surface 
dressing,  whose  payment  is  included  in  the  price  of  the  pavement  above  it. 
When  the  haul  for  such  excavation  is  above  100  feet,  payment  will  be 
allowed  for  transportation  only. 


128  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.' 

All  excavated  material  must  be  removed  at  the  end  of  each  day's  work. 
If  neglected  by  the  contractor  he  will  be  charged  with  the  cost  of  doing  it, 
and  fined  for  every  cubic  meter  not  promptly  removed. 

ARTICLE  22.  Existing  sidewalk  pavements  must  be  demolished,  and 
the  materials  either  removed  every  night  to  the  city  storehouses,  delivered 
to  the  adjacent  property  owner,  or  piled  up  for  his  disposition. 

Before  tearing  up  the  paving  blocks  they  must  be  counted  by  the  agent 
of  the  Administration  and  the  contractor,  who  will  be  responsible  for  the 
recorded  number,  which  he  must  deliver  at  the  storehouse  or  be  charged 
with  the  value  of  an  equal  number  of  new  blocks  of  the  same  brand 
and  pattern. 

The  curbstones,  crosswalks,  etc.,  must  be  removed  every  night  and 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  owners,  or  transported  to  the  city  storehouses 
by  the  engineer's  orders. 

ARTICLE  23.  The  mortars  must  generally  have  the  following  propor- 
tions, by  volume  :  Hydraulic  lime  mortar,  2  parts  of  powdered  lime  to  5 
parts  of  sand  ;  Portland  cement  mortar,  i  part  of  powdered  cement  to  3 
parts  of  sand  ;  Vassy  cement  mortar,  2  parts  of  powdered  cement  to  5  parts 
of  sand. 

The  Administration  reserves  the  privilege  of  changing  these  propor- 
tions. 

For  all  important  work,  and  wherever  else  required,  the  use  of  mixing 
machines  will  be  obligatory  for  making  all  mortars  not  composed  of  quick- 
setting  cement. 

The  use  of  sewer  water  is  forbidden  for  mixing  mortar  for  which 
suitable  pure  water  is  required,  that  the  contractor  must  take  and  pay  for 
in  the  usual  way. 

ARTICLE  24.  Hydraulic  lime  and  Portland  cement  concretes  must  be 
ordinarily  composed  of  two  parts  by  volume  of  mortar  and  three  parts  of 
gravel,  rigidly  measured  in  boxes  whose  capacity  has  been  approved.  The 
gravel  will  be  brought  in  wheelbarrows  to  a  grating,  where  it  will  be 
abundantly  washed  in  clear  water.  The  mixture  must  be  thoroughly 
worked  by  a  rake  and  shovel  on  a  plank  platform  of  sufficient  size,  until  all 
the  stones  are  completely  enveloped  in  mortar.  For  Portland  cement  beton 
sufficient  water  must  be  added  to  make  the  mixture  suitable  for  use  in  a 
fluid  state. 

ARTICLE  25.  The  ground  over  which  an  asphalte  coule  pavement  is  to 
be  made  must  first  be  loosened,  then  sprinkled  and  carefully  rammed, 
especially  along  the  border.  When  the  soil  has  thus  been  solidified  and 
well  dressed,  the  contractor  must  establish  the  foundation  bed,  formed  of 
hydraulic  lime  concrete  4  inches  thick,  including  a  coat  of  \  inch  of  lime 
mortar. 

The  concrete  must  be  carefully  rammed  to  close  all  open  spaces  and 
make  the  mortar  overflow  the  surface,  after  which  the  surface  will  be 
immediately  regulated  to  the  required  profile. 

The  bitumen  pavement  will  not  be  made  until  this  foundation  has  set 
and  is  well  dried  ;  meantime  the  surface  of  the  foundation  will  be  protected 
by  a  bed  of  fine  dry  sand,  which  will  be  carefully  swept  off  before  the 
application  of  the  asphalte  coule.  Watchmen  and  barriers  against  traffic 
must  be  maintained  at  the  contractor's  expense. 

ARTICLE  26.  The  asphalte  coule,  prepared  as  above  required,  must  be 
quickly  brought  from  the  shops  in  closed  locomotive  furnaces,  warmed  and 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  129 

supplied  with  suitable  apparatus  to  continue  the  mixing  during  transporta- 
tion and  up  to  the  moment  of  application,  so  as  to  maintain  intimate  mix- 
ture and  prevent  direct  action  of  the  fire.  It  must  not  be  prepared  in  fixed 
furnaces  at  the  points  where  it  is  used,  when  not  otherwise  specified.  The 
coat  of  bitumen  will  be  6  inches  thick  ;  it  will  be  poured  in  sections  about  6 
feet  wide,  perpendicular  to  the  curb,  and  limited  by  iron  rules  of  the 
required  thickness. 

The  asphalte  coule  will  be  spread  by  means  of  a  wooden  float  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  form  a  perfectly  dressed  surface  without  lumps  or  hollows. 

Each  new  section  must  be  perfectly  welded  to  the  preceding  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  present  no  open  joints,  cracks  or  offsets. 

The  mastic  must  have  no  cavities,  must  be  level  and  exactly  match  all 
curbs,  gutters,  paving,  man-hole  covers,  tree  boxes,  hydrants,  etc.,  and  join 
the  house  walls  without  any  cracks  or  cavities. 

In  constructing  isolated  sections  the  concrete  foundation  must  extend 

one  inch  each  side  beyond  the  mastic,  which  will  be  limited  by  regular  lines. 

As  soon  as  completed,  the  surface  will  be  lightly  sprinkled  with  fine  dry 

sand  and  gravel,  no  grains  exceeding  one-eighth  inch,  nor  being  less  than 

one-twelfth  inch  in  diameter. 

It  is  absolutely  forbidden  to  throw  water  on  the  surface  while  it  remains 
warm. 

Before  admitting  traffic,  the  contractor  must  barricade  and  guard  the 
pavement  and  protect  it  until  it  is  able  to  sustain  the  passage  of 
pedestrians. 

The  barrier  posts  and  pickets  must  never  be  driven  into  the  pavement* 
but  must  be  supported  by  plaster  bases. 

ARTICLE  27. — Asphalte  Pavements.  The  ground  on  which  the  asphalt, 
is  to  be  placed  must  always  be  first  loosened,  then  sprinkled  and  carefully 
rammed,  particularly  along  the  curb.  The  Administration  reserves  the 
right  to  roll  it  at  its  own  expense.* 

When  the  soil  is  thus  sufficiently  consolidated  and  well  dressed,  the- 
contractor  will  make  the  foundation  bed,  generally  formed  of  Portland 
cement  concrete,  six  inches  thick,  but  always  subject  to  the  requirements, 
of  the  Administration,  who  may  augment  or  diminish  the  thickness  or  pre- 
scribe the  use  of  hydraulic  lime  in  certain  cases. 

The  concrete  foundation  must  extend  with  the  same  thickness,  six 
inches  under  the  curb,  and  four  inches  behind  its  rear  face.  And  the  con- 
tractor must,  if  required,  set  the  curbs  in  the  concrete  in  a  mortar  bed  at 
the  same  time  that  the  road  foundations  are  made. 

Stone  and  other  materials  must  be  transported  on  planks  over  the  con- 
crete foundation. 

Wheelbarrow  loads  of  concrete  must  not  be  emptied  directly  on  the 
soil,  but  on  the  work  already  finished,  and  afterward  spread  into  the 
required  position,  and  rammed  until  the  mortar  flows  to  the  surface,  which 
will  then  be  carefully  regulated  to  the  required  curve  and  immediately 
covered  with  a  coat  of  Portland  cement  mortar  about  one-half  inch 
thick,  that  will  be  smoothed  and  cannot  be  replaced  by  a  coating  made  at  a 
later  time. 

The  concrete  must  be  left  to  dry  and  set  for  the  longest  possible  time, 
in  every  case,  during  at  least  three  days  in  dry  and  five  days  in  wet  weather  ;. 
meantime  the  contractor  must  provide  barriers  and  watchmen  to  protect  the. 
work. 


130 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 


Immediately  after  it  is  laid,  the  concrete  foundation  must  be  protected 
by  a  thin  bed  of  very  fine  sand,  which  will  be  carefully  swept  off  when  the 
asphalt  is  applied. 

The  Administration  reserves  the  right  to  have  the  asphalte  roads  built 
on  rolled  stone  foundations,  whose  surface  shall  be  cleaned  and  receive  an 
evening  coat  of  Portland  cement  mortar. 

ARTICLE  28.  The  powdered  asphalte,  heated  and  prepared,  must  be 
brought  to  the  required  point  in  covered  carts,  of  a  pattern  approved  by  the 
Administration,  and  designed  to  prevent,  as  much  as  possible,  the  cooling  of 
the  material  during  transportation.  The  powder  must  be  spread  about 
two-fifths  thicker  than  the  required  two  inches.  It  will  be  brought  in 
special  wheelbarrows,  trundled  on  planks  over  the  foundation  bed.  The 
powder  will  be  leveled  wdth  a  rake,  and  all  foreign  material  carefully 
removed,  and  it  will  be  carefully  rammed,  with  increasing  energy,  by  cast 
rammers,  properly  warmed  in  movable  furnaces. 

The  ramming  will  be  commenced  at  the  edges,  and  must  be  conducted 
so  as  to  assure  complete  union  between  adjacent  bands,  and  exact  junction 
with  the  edges  of  the  pavement  limiting  the  asphalte  surface. 

After  being  twice  rammed,  the  pavement  must  be  smoothed  by  a 
suitable  curved  hot  iron  tool,  after  which  it  must  be  vigorously  rammed 
and  rolled  until  thoroughly  cold,  by  a  roller  of  at  least  1,100  pounds  weight. 
The  cooling  must  not  be  hastened  by  the  application  of  cold  water. 

The  operations  must  be  conducted  so  as  to  secure  a  perfectly  uniform 
bed  of  asphalte,  with  a  surface  rigidly  conforming  to  the  required  profile 
and  presenting  no  lumps  or  hollows. 

The  pavement  will  be  sprinkled  with  sand  and  not  opened  for  traffic 
until  thoroughly  cool,  until  which  time  the  contractor  must  protect  it  by 
barriers  and  watchmen. 

ARTICLE  29.  The  above  requirements  apply  to  the  construction  of 
carriageways,  footways,  and  analogous  works,  and  to  the  maintenance  of 
repairs  of  junctions  of  drains,  etc. 

Carriageways  constructed  by  special  order  must  have,  when  made  of 
asphalte  coule,  a  foundation  of  hydraulic  lime  concrete  6  inches  thick, 
including  the  mortar  surface,  and  covered  with  two  coats  of  asphalte  coule 
0.6  inches  thick,  successively  poured,  the  second  one  being  checkered. 

When  made  of  asphalte  the  carriageways  must  have  a  foundation  of 
Portland  cement  concrete  6  inches  thick,  covered  i^  inches  thick  with  a  bed 
of  compressed  asphalte. 

ARTICLE  30.  Within  three  months  after  the  award  of  the  contract  the 
contractor  must  distribute  furnaces  for  use  in  repairing  the  asphalte  coule. 
These  furnaces  must  be  provided  with  boxes  to  contain  the  old  materials 
removed  from  the  road.  Similarly,  for  asphalte  repairs,  the  carriages 
bringing  the  hot  powder  must  contain  one  closed  compartment  for  the 
heated  powder,  another  for  the  grate,  fire,  irons  and  the  tools  necessary  for 
making  the  repairs,  and  a  third  to  carry  the  debris  and  material  resulting 
from  the  demolition  of  the  old  pavement. 

After  each  operation  of  new  work  or  repairing,  before  returning  the 
furnaces  to  the  shop  their  site  must  be  carefully  swept  and  cleaned  of 
ashes,  coal,  debris,  etc. 

CHAPTER.  V. — Maintenance,  Under  Forfeit,  of  the  Sidewalks  and 
Areas. — ART.  31.  The  contractor  is  required,  ist,  to  make  all  necessary 
repairs  and  removals,  and  furnish  the  labor  and  materials  requisite  to  main- 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  131 

tain  the  sidewalks  and  asphalte  and  asphalte  coutt  areas  in  perfect  con- 
dition, and  to  maintain  all  paved  gutters  included  in  the  given  district. 

2d.  To  repair  yearly,  equal  to  new,  at  least  the  fifteenth  part  of  the 
asphalte  coult  areas. 

3d.  To  repair  yearly,  equal  to  new,  such  parts  of  the  asphalte  areas  as 
are  designated  by  the  Administration.  This  comprises  repairs  due  to  any 
cause  whatever,  except  those  necessitated  by  trenches  dug  by  the  city  or  by 
private  or  public  companies. 

The  contractor  is  not  entitled  to  extra  payments  for  loss  or  expense 
from  any  unforseen  circumstance  or  condition. 

ARTICLE  32.  Each  year,  before  March  15,  the  contractor  must  present 
to  the  Administration  a  statement  of  the  surface  to  be  repaired,  this  state- 
ment, subject  to  modification  by  the  Administration,  must  be  conformed  to 
by  the  contractor;  if  it  is  not  presented  by  him  it  will  be  prepared  by  the 
engineer.  One-half  of  the  asphalt  coule  repairs  rnust  be  completed  by 
July  i,  two-thirds  must  be  completed  by  August  15,  and  they  must  be 
entirely  finished  by  October  i,  and  the  contractor  will  be  liable  to  a  reten- 
tion of  payment  if  the  work  is  delayed  beyond  these  dates. 

The  repairs  implicitly  comprise  the  demolition  and  removal  of  the  old 
asphalte  cotile  which  belongs  to  the  contractor,  and  the  rectification  and 
repairs,  if  necessary,  of  the  old  foundation. 

The  asphalte  coule  surface  must  .be  perfectly  plain  and  regular,  with- 
out humps  or  hollows,  and  so  that  a  straight  edge,  i.o  m.  long  (3.20  feet), 
laid  in  any  direction  will  not  leave  an  opening  more  than  0.4  inch  deep  be- 
tween its  side  and  the  pavement  at  any  point. 

There  must  be  no  holes  nor  cracks  in  the  surface. 

Throughout  the  ^f  ms.  of  asphalte  coule  surface  not  specially  repaired, 
the  contractor  must  renew  all  places  where  the  surface  is  cracked,  split, 
depressed,  swelled,  or  in  any  way  perforated,  where  it  matches  imperfectly 
with  tree  boxes,  fountains,  man-holes,  etc.,  and  especially  where  sunken 
near  trenches  and  fountains. 

It  is  formally  stipulated  that  in  repairs  of  the  first  fifteenth  of  the  sur- 
face, only  asphalt  of  the  first  class  can  be  used;  in  other  repairs  asphalt  of 
the  second  class  may  be  used. 

ARTICLE  33. — Repairs  of  Asphalte  Surfaces.  The  requirements  are 
substantially  the  same  as  those  of  Art.  32,  excepting  the  last  clause,  and  it 
is  further  specified  that  when  the  foundation  is  found  defective,  the  Admin- 
istration may  require  it  to  be  replaced  with  Portlant  cement  concrete. 

Defective  spots  must  be  carefully  cut  out  with  a  sharp  hatchet  and  at 
least  1.67  feet  larger  in  every  direction  than  the  defective  place;  the  sides 
must  be  cut  on  straight  lines;  there  must  be  a  perfect  union  of  the  old  and 
new  material,  and  the  surface  must  show  no  irregularities. 

On  September  i,  or  sooner  in  case  of  bad  weather,  a  general  examina- 
tion will  be  made  with  the  contractor,  who  must  immediately  begin  repairs 
on  doubtful  surfaces  not  likely  to  endure  through  the  winter. 

In  rainy  weather  the  bottoms  of  the  patches  should  be  sponged  and  dried 
as  carefully  as  possible  with  fine  hot  ashes,  and  then  be  well  brushed. 

Special  care  must  be  taken  to  clean  all  sand,  powder,  etc.,  from  the 
bottom  of  the  patches. 

If  the  concrete  is  reached  it  must  be  entirely  renewed  underneath  the 
patch,  or  a  Portland  cement  dressing  be  laid  on  top,  flush  with  the  bottom 
of  the  patch  throughout. 


132 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 


During  bad  weather  no  repairs  shall  be  made  of  asphalte,  unless  ex- 
pressly authorized  by  the  Administration. 

Melted  bitumen,  which  may  be  of  the  second  class,  will  generally  be 
used  for  a  bed  for  the  patch.  The  patch  is  only  temporary,  and  must  be 
replaced  by  the  i$th  of  May,  or  sooner,  if  possible. 

The  contractor  is  absolutely  forbidden  to  use  pebbles  for  filling  holes  in 
the  asphalte.  When  the  contractor  fails  to  make  necessary  repairs,  and 
the  Administration,  exceptionally  and  in  default  of  other  available  means, 
fills  holes  with  broken  stone,  the  contractor  must  pay  for  the  work  and  ma- 
terials, and  cannot  claim  damages  for  injury  to  the  pavement  caused  by  the 
loose  stones. 

In  winter,  when  the  Administration  recognizes  the  impossibility  o£ 
making  lime  or  cement  concrete,  holes  in  the  foundation  that  is  to  be 
repaired  may  be  filled  by  a  mixture  of  three  parts  by  volume  of  pebbles  to 
one  part  of  hot  asphalt^  but  this  provisional  foundation  must  be  removed  as 
soon  as  possible  and  replaced  in  the  standard  manner,  and  this  bituminous 
material  cannot  be  re-employed.  All  repairs  must  be  made  with  new  pow- 
dered asphalt,  the  same  as  for  new  work. 

ARTICLE  34.  Relates  to  statements,  estimates  and  payments  for  the  work 
done. 

ARTICLE  35.    Relates  to  the  measurement  of  surfaces,  etc. 

ARTICLE  36.  Relates  to  the  prices  and  payments  for  the  different  classes 
of  work. 

ARTICLE  37.  The  contractor  will  be  paid  for  repairs  at  sewer  trenches, 
water  and  gas  conduits,  etc.  He  can  make  no  claim  for  settlement  or  other 
injury  at  these  places,  and  must  maintain  the  pavement  there  in  the  same 
condition  as  elsewhere. 

To  assure  a  perfect  welding  at  the  edges  of  the  asphalte  coule  or  the 
asphalte  it  will  be  paid  for  of  a  width  2  inches  greater  in  every  direction 
than  the  trench,  and  must  not  fall  short  of  these  dimensions. 

To  provide  for  earth  settlements  the  contractor  may  temporarily  main- 
tain these  areas  during  a  period  of  not  more  than  eight  days  with  broken 
stone,  2^  inches  in  diameter,  that  is  rammed,  sprinkled,  swept  and  main- 
tained, so  as  to  prevent  injury  from  loose  stones.  After  eight  days,  if  final 
repairs  are  still  impossible,  the  contractor  must,  at  his  own  expense,  make  a 
provisional  surface  six  inches  thick  of  bituminous  concrete,  to  be  removed 
for  final  repairs. 

All  old  materials  taken  from  trenches,  and  all  abandoned  depots,  must 
be  removed  the  same  evening. 

CHAPTER  VI. — General  Conditions  and  Regulations.  ART.  38.  Relates 
to  the  inspection  and  acceptance  of  materials  and  work. 

ARTICLE  39.    Relates  to  extra  payments. 

ARTICLE  40.  The  contractor  must  remove  at  his  own  expense,  and  buy 
at  schedule  prices,  all  the  asphalte  provided  by  demolishing  the  old  work. 
No  allowance  will  be  made  for  the  nature  or  condition  of  the  materials.  The 
asphalte  and  asphalte  coule  will  be  bought  by  the  square  meter  ;  the  price 
of  the  former  will  be  according  to  the  mean  thickness,  and  for  the  latter  will 
be  uniform  for  all  thicknesses. 

ARTICLE  41.  Relates  to  transportation  of  material. 

ARTICLE  42.  Relates  to  the  inspection,  testing,  marking,  etc.,  of  materials 
and  work. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  133 

ARTICLE  43.  The  contractor  must  provide  at  his  office  and  shop,  a  tele- 
phone for  the  use  of  the  engineers  in  special  cases,  and  to  give  them  notice 
of  the  exact  hour  when  their  presence  is  required  ;  the  telephone  must  be 
connected  with  the  general  system  and  have  an  attendant  capable  of  receiv- 
ing and  transmitting  orders  and  messages. 

ARTICLE  44.  Relates  to  police  regulations,  numbering,  marking  furnaces, 
etc. ,  and  unloading  materials. 

ARTICLE  45.  The  contractor  is  forbidden  to  burn  any  material  in  his 
furnaces  that  will  cause  disagreeable  fumes,  discolor  the  paint  on  adjacent 
houses,  or  injure  the  neighboring  vegetation,  and  the  furnaces  must  be 
placed  so  that  the  smoke  will  be  carried  as  little  as  possible  by  the  wind  to 
adjacent  gardens  or  parks. 

ARTICLE  46.  On  holidays  or  exceptional  occasions,  the  Administration 
may  require  the  contractor  to  cease  digging  or  depositing  materials  in  the 
street,  and  he  shall  be  entitled  to  no  damages  therefor  or  extension  of  time 
on  account  of  such  delays. 

ARTICLE  47.  In  an  urgent  case  the  contractor  may  be  required  to  estab- 
lish a  night-turn,  for  whose  labor  he  will  receive  50  per  cent,  above  the 
regular  schedule  price,  during  that  time  only  which  is  specified  by  the 
Administration . 

ARTICLE  48.  Any  employee  not  obeying  the  engineer's  orders,  or  who 
practices  any  fraud  or  disobedience  of  the  regulations,  must  be  immediately 
discharged  by  the  contractor  at  the  engineer's  request.  Payments  will  be 
retained  for  any  portion  of  the  work  badly  or  fraudulently  executed  by  the 
contractor's  agents,  and  such  work  must  be  renewed  before  it  cfan  be  esti- 
mated. 

If  an  employee  is  not  immediately  removed  when  required,  all  work 
done  by  him  will  be  subject  to  a  double  penalty  and  will  not  be  estimated. 

The  contractor  must  furnish  a  certificate  showing  cause  for  leaving,  to 
every  employee  who  leaves  any  department  of  his  municipal  work,  and  this 
certificate  must  be  immediately  submitted  to  the  engineer,  who  may  refuse 
to  permit  re-employment, 

ARTICLE  49  provides  that  if  the  contractor  is  absent  without  authority, 
fails  to  perform  all  his  duties,  or  to  obey  the  injunctions  of  the  Administra- 
tion within  ten  days,  he  shall  be  notified  that  he  is  considered  to  have 
abandoned  the  undertaking,  and  after  twenty-four  hours  the  Administra- 
tion may  either  prescribe  a  re-letting  of  the  old  contract  or  may  entirely 
cancel  it  without  returning  the  material  ;  or  it  may  execute  the  work  at  the 
expense  of  the  contractor,  by  workmen  under  competent  supervision,  or 
with  contracts  by  private  contractors,  according  to  the  urgency  of  the  case. 
The  expenses  will  be  covered  by  the  amounts  due  the  contractor,  and  by 
the  contractor's  deposit  in  the  city  treasury. 

ARTICLE  50.  The  contractor  is  forbidden  to  sublet  any  part  of  the 
work  without  the  written  authorization  of  the  engineer,  which  authorization 
is  always  subject  to  revocation. 

It  is  especially  prohibited  to  sublet  the  digging  and  transportation  to 
a  different  party  from  the  one  who  furnishes  and  constructs  the  concrete 
foundations. 

ARTICLE  51  requires  that  the  contractor  provides  a  responsible  agent 
for  each  division  of  the  work  ;  that  the  contractor  and  his  agents  must  per- 
sonally meet  the  engineers  at  any  time  they  may  appoint,  and  relates  to  the 
Tegular  reports,  receipt  of  instructions,  etc. 


134  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

ARTICLE  52  is  a  schedule  of  amounts  to  be  retained  by  the  Adminis- 
tration from  the  payments  due  the  contractor,  in  cases  of  fraud,  delay, 
imperfect  work  or  materials,  etc. 

For  the  use  of  unauthorized  or  impure  asphalte,  each  offence,  soof.; 
for  the  omission  of  new  concrete  where  required  under  patches,  $of . ;  for 
delaying  the  repairs  of  T^  of  asphalte  coule,  from  loof.  to  soof. 

For  delaying  repairs  of  asphalte,  from  2oof .  to  soof. ;  for  delaying  to 
commence  work  ordered  begun,  2of.  per  diem. 

Other  fines  are  specified  for  insufficient  thickness  in  pavement  and 
foundations  thereof,  for  the  use  of  improper  and  insiifficient  material,  for 
poor  or  improper  workmanship,  for  unsatisfactory  illumination  and  protec- 
tion, for  various  delays  and  insufficient  progress,  etc.,  etc. 

ARTICLE  53  provides  for  the  regular  reports  of  the  engineers,  which 
must  be  countersigned  by  the  contractor. 

Provision  is  made  for  settling  disagreements  between  the  contractor 
and  engineer  and  for  paying  the  former,  if  necessary,  from  the  deposit  in 
the  treasury. 

ARTICLE  54.  The  schedule  prices  for  the  different  parts  of  the  work 
will  be  held  invariable. 

ARTICLE  55.  The  contractor  must,  at  his  own  expense,  properly  light, 
barricade  and  guard  the  work  and  shops,  conforming  to  police  regulations 
and  special  instructions  from  the  engineers.  An  inclosed  lamp  or  lantern 
must  be  placed  at  least  every  10  meters  (33  feet)  along  the  working  place, 
which  must  have  red  lights  toward  the  open  road. 

ARTICLE  56.  One  per  cent,  of  all  sums  due  the  contractor  will  be 
reserved  for  the  benefit  of  the  national  asylums  of  Vincennes  and 
Vesinet. 

ARTICLE  57.  The  contractor  must  pay  the  contract  and  registry  fees, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  the  guaranteed  period  will  receive  his  deposit,  less 
any  deductions  that  may  have  been  incurred. 

ASPHALT    PAVEMENT    CONTRACTS   IN    NEW    YORK,* 

During  the  past  few  days,  the  New  York  Evening  Post  has,  in 
double  column  articles  with  conspicuous  head  lines,  published 
attacks  on  Public  Works  Commissioner  Gilroy,  of  New  York,  alleg- 
ing improper  conduct  in  the  matter  of  letting  contracts  for  asphalt 
pavements,  and  intimating  this  was  with  a  view  of  favoring 
adherents  of  the  political  organization  known  as  Tammany  Hall,  of 
which  he  is  a  conspicuous  leader.  The  charges  are,  substantially, 
that  a  pavement,  except  in  one  instance,  was  called  for  that  one  cor- 
poration practically  controlled  ;  that  the  price  paid  the  contractors 
on  this  work  was  exorbitant,  and  that  the  bond  exacted  to  guaran- 
tee the  1 5-year  maintenance,  though  25  per  cent,  of  the  contract 
price,  was  insufficient.  Seventy  per  cent,  of  the  contract  price  was 
payable  on  the  completion  of  the  work,  and  3  per  cent,  of  the  remain- 
ing 30  per  cent,  being  payable  yearly  for  ten  years  after  the  first  five 
years. 

*xxi,  98. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  135 

We  are  satisfied  that  he  honestly  tried  to  get  the  pavement  that 
he  believed  was  the  best,  and  that  he  acted  on  the  advice  of  those 
whom  he  believed  competent  to  advise  and  who  had  no  interest  in 
any  particular  pavement. 

In  regard  to  the  cost,  the  Post  quotes  Mr.  Gilroy's  statement 
that  the  average  price  of  the  contracts  is  $4.45  per  square  yard,  with 
a  i5-year  guaranty,  while  the  ruling  price  in  Washington  for  several 
years  has  been  $2.25  per  square  yard,  and  urges  that  there  is  no 
good  explanation  for  the  difference.  The  pavements  in  the  two 
cities  are  laid  by  the  same  concerns  in  the  same  way,  and  are  sub- 
stantially alike.  Of  course  it  might  happen  that  New  York  paid  too 
much,  relatively,  without  dishonesty  of  its  officers,  but  as  a  matter  of 
fact  there  is  obvious  explanation  for  a  considerable  difference  in 
price  between  the  two  places. 

The  cost  of  labor,  including  teams,  is  in  the  region  of  30  per  cent. 
less  in  Washington  than  in  New  York,  and  in  the  first  named  place 
the  refining  plants  are  within  the  city  and  in  hauling  and  handling 
material  there  is  a  large  advantage  over  New  York.  Again,  Wash- 
ington is  a  city  of  very  light  traffic  and  the  cost  of  maintenance  is 
small,  while  in  New  York  it  will  form  a  heavy  item.  The  general 
theory  in  the  last  named  city  is  that  asphalt  pavement  will  need  but 
slight  repairs  for  the  first  five  years  in  residential  streets,  but  after 
that  it  will  cost  from  10  to  15  cents  per  square  yard  per  year  to  keep 
it  in  order.  This,  with  the  fifteen  year  contracts,  of  course  involves 
a  charge  of  from  §i  to  §1.50  a  square  yard  in  the  price.  This  is  put 
in  the  contract  price  for  paving  instead  of  being  made  directly  in  the 
shape  of  future  payments  for  maintenance,  it  may  be  remarked* 
because  of  a  provision  in  the  laws  forbidding  contracts  for  payment 
of  money  not  already  appropriated.  Of  course  the  proper  difference 
in  cost  of  the  pavement  at  Washington  and  New  York  can  be  only 
approximated,  but  the  facts  and  figures  given  at  least  show  that  it  is 
considerable. 

The  Post  contended  for  a  bond  of  more  than  25  per  cent,  of  the 
contract  price,  yet  the  fact  that  it  was  put  even  so  high  effectually 
excluded  many  parties  from  bidding,  simply  because  they  could  not 
find  capitalists  who  were  willing  to  wait  fifteen  years  to  be  released 
from  an  obligation.  It  should  be  clear  that  if  the  bond  was  higher 
the  competition  would  be  more  restricted  and  the  price  greater.  It 
seems  to  us  the  bond  is  sufficient. 

The  people  of  New  York  certainly  have  manifested  a  desire  for 
asphalt  pavements  on  streets  for  which  it  is  suited,  and  Mr.  Gilroy 
should  not  be  charged  with  improper  conduct  in  asking  for  what  he 
was  advised  and  had  satisfied  himself  had  been  satisfactorily  tried 
elsewhere,  especially  since  his  specifications  called  for  no  pavement 


136  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

that  one  company  has  a  monopoly  of  putting  down.  This  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  contracts  were  awarded  to  the  Barber  Asphalt  Pav- 
ing Company  and  Matthew  Taylor,  rival  concerns,  to  the  amounts  of 
$325,287  and  $256,590,  respectively.  In  our  opinion  the  average 
price  of  $4.50  per  yard,  on  a  £-inch  concrete  foundation,  involving 
as  it  does  a  fifteen-year  maintenance,  was  a  low  one  to  be  made  with 
responsible  guarantees. 

ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS  OF  BUFFALO,  N.  Y.* 

Buffalo  has  a  large  number  of  its  principal  streets  paved  with 
asphalt.  We,  therefore,  obtained  from  the  city  engineer  copies  of 
the  specifications  under  which  these  pavements  were  laid.  Deputy 
City  Engineer  Edward  B.  Guthrie  informs  us  that  under  the 
"  Barber  Specifications,"  which  we  reprint  below,  about  50  miles 
have  been  laid  since  1882,  and  the  experience  has  been  satisfactory 
to  the  citizens  and  the  municipal  authorities.  Besides  this  a  con- 
tract has  been  made  for  five  miles  of  vulcanite  pavement  this  year 
under  a  five  years'  guarantee,  which  is  being  laid  under  the  specifi- 
cation also  reprinted  below. 

A.  L.  Barber  s  specification  for  laying  his  genuine  Trinidad  asphalt, 
pavements ;  1888. 

i.  We  propose  to  lay  Trinidad  asphalt  pavements  two  and  one-half 
(2)4)  inches  in  thickness  when  compressed,  with  a  base  of  hydraulic  cement- 
concrete  six  inches  in  depth. 

Roadway. — 2.  All  unnecessary  material  will  be  removed  from  the 
street;  soft  or  spongy  places,  not  affording  a  firm  foundation,  will  be  dug 
out  and  refilled  with  good  earth,  well  rammed,  and  the  entire  road-bed  will 
be  thoroughly  rolled. 

Foundation. — 3.  Upon  the  road-bed  thus  prepared  will  be  laid  a  bed  of 
hydraulic  cement-concrete  six  inches  in  thickness,  to  be  made  as  follows: 

One  measure  of  American  cement,  equal  to  the  best  quality  of  freshly- 
burned  Rosendale  cement,  and  two  of  clean,  sharp  sand  will  be  thoroughly 
mixed  dry,  and  then  made  into  a  mortar  with  the  least  possible  amount  of 
water;  broken  stone  or  brick,  thoroughly  cleaned  from  dirt,  drenched  with 
water,  but  containing  no  loose  water  in  the  heap,  will  then  be  incorporated 
immediately  with  the  mortar  in  such  quantities  as  will  give  a  surplus  of 
mortar  when  rammed.  This  proportion,  when  ascertained,  will  be  regulated 
by  measure.  Each  batch  of  concrete  will  be  thoroughly  mixed.  It  will 
then  be  spread,  and  at  once  thoroughly  compacted  by  ramming  until  free 
mortar  appears  upon  the  surface.  The  whole  operation  of  mixing  and  lay- 
ing each  batch  will  be  performed  as  expeditiously  as  possible.  The  upper 
surface  will  be  made  exactly  parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  pavement  to 
be  laid.  Upon  this  base  will  be  laid  the  wearing  surface,  or  pavement 
proper,  the  cementing  material  of  which  is  a  paving  cement  prepared  from 
pure  Trinidad  asphaltum,  unmixed  with  any  of  the  products  of  coal  tar. 

*xix,  60. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  137 

Wearing  Surface. — 4.  The  wearing  surface  will  be  composed  of: 

Asphaltic  cement from  12    to    15 

Sand "     83    to    70 

Pulverized  carbonate  of  lime "       5    to    15 

IOO  IOO 

i 

In  order  to  make  the  pavement  homogeneous,  the  proportion  of 
asphaltic  cement  must  be  varied  according  to  quality  and  character  of  the 
sand.  The  carbonate  of  lime  may  be  reduced  or  omitted  entirely  when 
suitable  sand  can  be  obtained. 

The  sand  and  asphaltic  cement  are  heated  separately  to  about  three 
hundred  degrees  Fahrenheit.  The  pulverized  carbonate  of  lime,  while 
cold,  is  mixed  with  the  hot  sand  in  the  required  proportions,  and  is  then 
mixed  with  the  asphaltic  cement  at  the  required  temperature,  and  in  the 
proper  proportions,  in  a  suitable  apparatus,  which  will  effect  a  perfect 
mixture. 

The  pavement  mixture,  prepared  in  the  manner  thus  indicated,  will 
be  laid  on  the  foundation  in  two  coats.  The  first  coat,  called  cushion  coat, 
will  contain  from  2  to  4  per  cent,  more  asphaltic  cement  than  given  above; 
it  will  be  laid  to  such  depth  as  will  give  a  thickness  of  half  an  inch  after 
being  consolidated  by  a  roller.  The  second  coat,  called  surface  coat,  pre- 
pared as  above  specified,  will  be  laid  on  the  cushion  coat;  it  will  be  brought 
to  the  ground  in  carts,  at  a  temperature  of  about  250°  Fahr. ;  it  will  then  be 
carefully  spread,  by  means  of  hot  iron  rakes,  in  such  manner  as  to  give  a 
uniform  and  regular  grade,  and  to  such  depth  that  after  having  received 
its  ultimate  compression,  it  will  have  a  thickness  of  two  inches.  The  sur- 
face will  then  be  compressed  by  rollers,  after  which  a  small  amount  of 
hydraulic  cement  will  be  swept  over  it,  and  it  will  then  be  thoroughly  com- 
pressed by  a  steam  roller;  the  rolling  being  continued  as  long  as  it  makes  an 
impression  on  the  surface. 

Should  there  be  a  railroad  track  on  the  street,  the  edge  of  the  asphalt 
pavement  adjacent  to  the  track  will  be  protected  by  a  line  of  stone  paving 
blocks  on  each  side  of  the  rail. 

SPECIFICATION 

For paving 

with  "A.  L.  Barber's  Trinidad  Asphalt  Pavement,"  including  all  necessary 
connections  as  per  specifications  and  quantities  given  : 

The  carriage-way  shall  be  graded  two  (2)  feet  wider  than  the  width  of 
the  pavement  ordered  and  to  a  depth  of  eight  and  one-half  in  ches  below 
the  surface  of  the  street  on  the  centre  line,  the  cross-section  to  conform  to 
a  crown  of . . .  .inches,  in  accordance  with  stakes  set  for  line  and  grade  by 
the  engineer,  or  person  appointed. 

Roots  of  trees,  when  so  directed  by  the  engineer,  to  be  saved  as  much 
as  possible,  and  grading  to  be  done  carefully  around  said  trees  ;  also  the 
sodding  on  sidewalks  to  be  protected  as  much  as  possible,  if  the  street  is  to 
be  graded  only  for  the  width  of  the  paving. 

The  sidewalks  are  to  be  graded,  if  petitioner  the  order  for  paving  this 
street  includes  the  grading  of  sidewalks,  with  a  rise  of  one-half  (^)  inch  per 
foot  from  the  top  of  the  curb-stone  to  the  side  of  the  street.  Wooden  or 
stone  sidewalks  must  be  removed  carefully  and  must  be  replaced  in  front 


138  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

of  each  lot  where  they  originally  belonged,  in  as  good  a  shape  and  manner 
as  they  were  found  by  the  contractor  before  removing  them  in  order  to 
grade  the  street. 

All  embankments  shall  be  thoroughly  settled  before  any  sand  or  gravel 
or  concrete  for  paving  is  laid  on  them.  The  contractor  (if  necessary)  must 
flood  the  entire  bed  of  the  sub-grade  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  waterr 
provided  the  water-pipe  lays  on  the  street,  after  excavation  to  proper  sub- 
grade,  and  must  pound  well  all  spots  that  show  a  depression  by  being 
flooded.  The  cost  of  the  water  the  contractor  must  include  in  his  contract 
price. 

The  width  of  paving  between  the  curb-stones  is  to  be feet. 

The  curb-stones  to  be1  of  the  best  quality  of  hard  Medina  sandstone, 
not  less  than  four  (4)  inches  thick  and  eighteen  (18)  inches  deep,  not  less 
than  two  (2)  feet  six  (6)  inches  long,  cut  with  a  proper  bevel  on  the  top  to  a 
true  and  uniform  surface.  The  end  joints  are  to  be  cut  at  right  angles  with 
one-quarter  (£)  inch  joint  for  a  depth  of  ten  (10)  inches.  The  face  of  the 
curbing  from  top  to  the  under  side  of  the  asphalt  coating  must  be  neatly 
dressed.  The  curbing  must  be  carefully  set  to  straight  line  and  a  true 
grade  in  a  full  bed  of  sand  or  gravel,  and  backed  up  with  eight  (8)  inches 
thickness  of  same  m'aterial  in  the  rear. 

At  crossings  of  paved  streets,  connections  of  curbs  must  be  made  at 
corners  with  a  true  circle  of  six  (6)  feet  radius. 

Protection  curbing  to  be  not  less  than  three  (3)  inches  thick  on  top,  and 
dressed  to  uniform  width  on  top,  with  end  joints  cut  at  right  angles  not  to 
exceed  \  inch  for  a  depth  of  at  least  three  (3)  inches,  to  be  not  less  than 
eighteen  (18)  inches  long  and  fourteen  (14)  inches  deep,  and  to  be  hard 
Medina  sandstone. 

The  gutters  shall  be  of  a  depth  of. . .  inches,  or  as  shall  be  directed. 

The  asphalt  pavement  to  be  laid  in  accordance  with  the  specification 
for  A.  L.  Barber's  Trinidad  asphalt  pavement,  hereto  attached. 

Where  the  curbing  comes  above  natural  ground,  it  must  be  backed  up  by 
a  bank. . .  .wide  on  top,  rising  \  inch  per  foot  towards  lines  of  street,  with  a 
slope  to  natural  ground  near  lines  of  street  of  i£  to  i.  Where  such  banks 
come  on  stone  or  wooden  sidewalks,  these  must  be  first  carefully  taken  up 
and  properly  relaid  on  top  of  bank  in  front  of  each  property,  where  they 
originally  belonged,  as  to  be  directed. 

General  Specifications. — All  material  found  in  the  grading  of  the 
street,  except  sidewalks  proper,  hitching  or  other  posts,  step  stones  or 
other  private  property,  is  the  property  of  the  contractor;  also  all  chips, 
stones,  rubbish,  etc.,  that  may  have  accumulated  on  the  streets  or  sidewalks 
during  the  process  of  paving,  and  after  completion  of  grading  and  paving 
the  street,  block  after  block,  as  the  work  progresses,  must  be  removed 
therefrom  by  him. 

All  old  material  found  in  the  street,  that  after  being  properly 
redressed  corresponds  in  reference  to  size,  shape  and  quality  to  these 
specifications,  may  be  used  in  the  new  work. 

All  material  furnished  and  all  work  done,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
engineer,  shall  not  be  in  accordance  with  these  specifications,  shall  be 
immediately  removed,  and  other  material  furnished  and  other  work  done 
that  shall  be  in  accordance  therewith. 

In  preparing  concrete,  none  but  coarse,  sharp,  clean  sand  will  be 
allowed. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  139 

The  work  shall  be  done  subject  to  the  inspection  and  approval  of  the 
engineer,  or  such  person  as  appointed,  both  as  to  material  and  workman- 
ship, and  must  be  completed  in working  days,  after  a 

written  notice  from  the  engineer  to  begin  the  work  has  been  served  on  the 
contractor.  The  work  shall  be  deemed  complete  when  the  contractor  is 
allowed  the  final  twenty  per  cent,  on  his  contract. 

The  contractor  to  be  subject  to  a.  penalty  of  $ for  every  succes- 
sive day  after  the  above  specified  time  until  the  work  is  completed  and 
accepted,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  Common  Council. 

The  engineer,  or  such  person  as  appointed,  will  set  the  stakes  for 
paving,  provided  a  block  has  been  properly  excavated,  to  sub-grade  from 
curb  line  to  curb  line  of  cross  street,  for  line  and  grade,  which  the  contrac- 
tor must  protect  and  maintain  and  keep  uncovered  for  examination. 

The  contractor  shall  pay  all  damages,  or  losses,  or  claims  recovered, 
that  the  city  may  be  made  liable  for,  and  save  the  city  harmless  in  all 
things,  from  any  accident  which  may  happen  or  arise  by  reason  of  failure, 
or  neglect,  or  refusal  on  his  part  to  comply  with  the  ordinances  of  the  city. 

In  the  event  that  the  contractor  shall  abandon  the  work  and  refuse  to 
commence  it  again  within  three  (3)  days  after  a  written  notice  from  the  engi- 
neer, directing  him  to  resume  the  work,  has  been  served  on  him,  then  the 
sureties  on  the  contract  will  be  notified  and  directed  to  complete  the  work. 

The  contractor  will  be  required  to  pile  all  material  that  may  be  neces- 
sary for  the  work  neatly  on  the  front  of  the  sidewalk,  and  not  within  three 
(3)  feet  of  any  fire  hydrant,  and  in  such  manner  as  will  preserve  sufficient 
passageway  of  not  less  than  three  (3)  feet  on  the  line  of  the  sidewalk. 

The  contractor  must  accept  orders  for  extra  work,  not  included  in  this 
contract,  which  may  be  necessary  and  connected  with  the  paving  of  the 
street,  if  so  directed  by  the  engineer,  and  execute  them  properly  at  reason- 
able prices.  He  must  make  sewer  and  water  connections  where  ordered, 
in  accordance  with  attached  specifications  for  same,  to  be  paid  for  as  stated 
in  said  specification,  at  prices  not  to  exceed  the  ones  given  below. 

Each  proposal  must  state  a  certain  sum  for  furnishing  materials, 
labor,  and  finishing  the  work  complete  ;  it  must  be  accompanied  by  bonds 

required  by  law;  it  must  include  the  sum  of  $ per  day  for  the 

purpose  of  paying  an  inspector,  to  be  appointed  by  the  engineer,  to  super- 
intend the  paving  during  the  entire  time  the  work  is  progressing  ;  said 
inspector  to  be  paid  on  the  recommendation  of  the  engineer,  by  warrants 
drawn  against  the  assessment  roll  for  said  work.  The  inspector  shall  not 
be  employed  in  any  manner  by  the  contractor,  and  shall  be  discharged  at 
the  option  of  the  engineer. 

The  orders  of  the  inspector  are  to  be  obeyed  by  the  contractor,  or  in 
absence  of  the  latter  by  the  superintendent. 

In  case  the  city  finds  it  necessary  to  lay  pipes  for  gas  or  water,  or 
make  other  improvements  in  the  street,  or  private  parties  or  companies 
want  to  make  connections  with  pipes  laid  in  the  street,  or  want  to  make 
repairs  or  adjustments  of  their  pipes,  stop-cocks,  etc.,  before  the  concrete 
bed  for  paving  is  made  in  any  one  place,  the  contractor  shall  not  interfere 
with  the  progress  of  such  work,  but  any  time  lost  by  him  on  account  of  the 
city,  private  parties  or  companies  making  such  improvements,  etc.,  before 
paving,  will  be  added  to  the  time  allowed  to  him  to,  finish  the  work  com- 
plete. 


140  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

The  contractor  is  obliged  to  be  either  himself  at  the  work,  or  in  his 
absence,  to  have  a  foreman  present  at  the  work,  who  will  be  responsible  for 
the  whole  work  under  contract,  and  who  must  obey  the  order  of  the  engi- 
neer or  his  assistant  in  relation  to  every  part  of  work  to  be  done  under  their 
contract. 

The  contractor  agrees  that  he  will  pay,  punctually,  the  workmen  who 
shall  be  employed  on  the  aforesaid  work,  in  cash  current,  and  not  in  what 
is  denominated  store  pay, 

And  that  all  laborers  to  be  employed  on  the  said  work  shall  be  paid  at 
the  rate  of  not  less  than  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  day  of  ten  hours' 
work. 

(SECTION  39.)  "No  contract  for  the  pavement  of  a  street  or  avenue,  or  any 
part  thereof,  shall  hereafter  be  let  or  made  until  the  person  or  corporation 
to  whom  it  is  proposed  to  let  the  contract  shall  furnish  a  bond  to  the  city 
of  Buffalo,  with  two  sufficient  sureties,  who  shall  each  justify  in  full 
penalty  of  the  bond.  The  condition  of  said  bond  to  be  that  the  contractor 
will,  at  his  own  cost  and  expense,  keep  and  maintain  the  pavement  in  good 
•condition  for  five  (5)  years  from  the  completion  of  each  pavement.  Said 
bonds  shall  be  approved  by  the  Mayor,  and  filed  with  the  Comptroller,  and 
the  amount  of  said  bond  to  be  equal  to  33^-  per  cent,  of  the  contract." 

According  to  above  section  39,  chapter  3,  the  contractor  binds  himself 
to  repair  the  street  during  said  five  (5)  years  whenever  and  wherever  and 
in  the  manner  as  directed  by  the  engineer  within  five  (5)  days  after  a 
written  notice  to  that  effect  is  served  on  him  ;  and  in  the  event  that  the 
contractor  refuses  or  fails  to  comply  with  such  order  of  the  engineer,  then 
the  sureties  of  said  bonds  will  be  notified  and  directed  to  proceed  with  the 
repairs  as  directed  by  the  engineer.  He  further  binds  himself  to  repair  the 
street  only  on  the  order  of  the  engineer. 

Payments  will  be  made  semi-monthly,  according  to  an  estimate  of  the 
engineer,  of  work  completed  and  material  delivered  within  twenty  (20)  per 
cent,  to  be  drawn  from  the  proper  fund ;  said  twenty  (20)  per  cent,  to  be 
retained  until  the  work  is  completed  and  accepted  by  the  engineer  in  legal 
form. 

In  accordance  with  a  resolution  adopted  February  7,  1887,  all  curb, 
crosswalk  and  other  cut  stone  used  in  the  paving  of  this  street  must  be  cut 
within  the  city  limits. 

Specifications  of  Connections. — Proper  connections  have  to  be  made 
with  all  asphalt  or  stone  pavements  abutting  to  or  crossing  this  street. 
The  asphalt  connections  have  to  be  made  either  according  to  "A.  L. 
Barber's  Asphalt  Specification  "  or  according  to  the  kind  of  asphalt  laid  on 
these  streets  previously  as  to  be  directed. 

The  stone  pavement  connections  must  be  made  according  to  the  .... 
class  pavement  specification,  with  the  exception  that  excavation  below  is 
not  required,  but  all  necessary  sand  and  stone  is  to  be  furnished  by  the 
contractor  to  fetch  such  repavement  to  proper  grade  and  quality  as  to  be 
directed. 

The  quantities  for  excavation  and  filling  include  all  connections  of 
unpaved  cross  streets,  at  a  rise  or  fall  of  one  foot  in  thirty- three,  and  for  a 
width  as  to  be  directed  in  each  case  ;  also  all  openings  of  gutters  on  said 
unpaved  crossing  streets,  or  other  streets,  where,  and  as  far  as  necessary, 
as  directed  by  the  engineer. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  14! 

The  wooden  or  other  crosswalks,  where  disturbed  by  grading  said  dirt 
street,  must  be  carefully  relaid  in  as  good  condition  as  they  were  before,  at 
each  crossing  where  they  originally  belonged. 

Quantities. — Excavation,    cub.    yards ;   embankment,   cub.    yards 

;   new   curbing,  lin.    feet ;  protection   curbing,   lin.  feet ;  old 

curbing  reset,  lin.  feet ;  length  of  street  to  be  paved,  lin.  feet ;  new 

gutter,  sq.  feet ;  old  gutter  reset,  sq.  feet    . . . ;  new  crosswalk,  sq.  feet 

;  old  crosswalks  relaid,  sq.  feet ;  new  paving,  sq.  yards ;  re- 
paving  with  more  or  less  old  material,  asphalt,  sq.  yards. . . . ;  repaving  with 
more  or  less  old  material,  stone,  sq.  yards. . . . ;  round  corners. . . . ;  connec- 
tions with  sidewalks. . . . ;  inspector  per  day,  $. . . . 

Engineer. 

Specifications  of  the  Filbert  Vulcanite  Asphaltic  Pavement,  laid  by  the 
National  Vulcanite  Company  of  New  Jersey. 

1.  The  vulcanite  asphaltic  pavement  will  be  eight  and  one-half  (8£) 
inches  in  thickness,  as  follows  :  The  wearing  surface  will  be  one  and  one- 
half  (i£)  inches  in  thickness  when  compacted,  with  a  bituminous  base  and 
binder  seven  inches  in  depth. 

2.  The  space  over  which  the  pavement  is  to  be  laid  will  be  excavated' 
to  the  depth  of  eight  and  one-half  (8|)  inches  below  the  top  surface  of  the 
pavement  when   completed.      Any  objectionable   or  unsuitable    material 
below  the  bed  will  be  removed,  and  the  space  filled  with  clean  gravel  or 
sand  well  rammed.     The  bed  will  then  be  trimmed  so   as  to  be  exactly 
parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  new  pavement  when  completed,  and  the  entire 
road-bed  will  be  thoroughly  rolled  with  a  heavy  steam-roller.     Upon  the 
foundation  will  be  laid  the  base  and  binder,  seven  (7)  inches  in  thickness, 
in  the  following  manner  : 

3.  The  "  base  "  will  be  composed  of  clean  broken  stone,  that  will  pass 
through  a  three  (3)  inch  ring,  well  rammed,  and  rolled  with  a  steam-roller 
to   the   depth  of  five  (5)  inches,  and  thoroughly  coated  with   hot  paving 
cement,  composed  of  No.  4  tar  distillate  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  (i) 
gallon  to  the  square  yard  of  pavement. 

4.  The  second  or  "binder"  course  will  be  composed  of  clean  broken 
stone,  thoroughly  screened,  not  exceeding  one  and  one-quarter  (i£)  inches 
in  the  largest  dimensions,  and  No.  4  tar  distillate.    The  stone  will  be  heated 
by  passing  through  revolving  heaters,  and  thoroughly  mixed  by  machinery 
with  the  distillate  in  the  proportion  of  one  gallon  of  distillate  to  one  (i) 
cubic  foot  of  stone. 

5.  The  "  binder  "  will  be  hauled  to  the  work,  spread  upon  the  base 
course  at  least  two  (2)  inches  thick,  and  immediately  rammed  and  rolled 
with  hand  and  heavy  steam-rollers  while  in  a  hot  and  plastic  condition. 

6.  The  wearing  surface  will  be  one  and  one-half  (1*4)  inches  thick 
when  compacted,  made  of  paving  cement,  composed  of  twenty-five  (25)  per 
cent,  of  asphalt  and  seventy-five  (75)  per  cent,  of  distillate  mixture,  with 
other  materials,  as  follows  :     Clean,  sharp  sand  will  be  mixed  wyith  pulver- 
ized stone  of  such  dimensions  as  to  pass  through  a  one-quarter  (*^)  inch 
screen  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one. 

To  twenty-one  (21)  cubic  feet  of  the  above  named  mixture  will  be  added 
one  peck  of  dry  hydraulic  cement,  one  quart  of  flour  of  sulphur,  and  two 
quarts  of  air-slacked  lime.  To  this  mixture  will  be  added  three  hundred 
and  twenty  (320)  pounds  of  paving  cement,  to  compose  the  wearing  surface. 


I  42  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

7.  The  material  will  be  heated  to  about  250°  Fahr. — the  paving  cement 
in  kettles,  the  sand  and  stone,  etc.,  in  revolving  heaters.     They  will  be 

1  thoroughly  mixed  by  improved  machinery,  and  the  mixture  carried  upon 
the  work,  when  it  will  be  spread  upon  the  binder  course  two  (2)  inches  thick 
with  hot  iron  rakes  and  other  suitable  appliances,  and  immediately  compacted 
with  tamping-irons,  hand  and  steam  rollers,  while  in  a  hot  and  plastic  state. 
The  surface  will  be  finished  with  a  dusting  of  dry  hydraulic  cement  rolled  in. 

8.  The  pavement  so  constructed  must  be  a  solid  mass,  eight  and  one- 
half  (8}4)  inches  thick,  and  will  be  thoroughly  rolled  and  cross-rolled  until  it 
has  become  hard  and  solid. 

9.  The  pavement  shall  be  equal  in  every  respect  to  that  laid  on  K 
Street,  between  Ninth  and  Eighteenth  Streets,  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C., 
in  1874  and  1875. 

ASPHALT    PAVEMENT    ON    STONE    FOUNDATION    IN    NEW  YORK.* 

The  following  specifications  for  the  particular  kind  of  pavement 
required  is  of  interest,  since  they  are  prepared  by  the  Department  of 
Public  Works,  presumably  after  careful  investigation,  it  being  re- 
"membered  that  for  the  expenditure  of  the  $3,000,000  appropriation 
for  new  pavements,  a  special  engineering  department  has  been 
created,  with  Stevenson  Towle,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  as  engineer  in 
charge. 

Specifications  for  Laying  an  Asphalt  Pavement  on  the  present  Stone- 
block  Pavement  in  Park  Avenue,  between  Thirty-fourth  and 
Fortieth  Streets,  New  York  City. 

1.  Work  and  Materials  must  Agree  'with  Specifications. — All  the 
materials  furnished,  and  all  the  work  done,  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  shall  not  be  in  accordance  with  these  speci- 
fications, shall  be  immediately  removed  and  other  materials  furnished,  and 
work  done  that  will,  in  the  opinion  of  said  Commissioner,  be  in  accordance 
therewith.     Before  any  materials  are  placed  upon  the  street  or  avenue,  the 
Commissioner  of  Public  Works  shall  approve  of  the  quality  and  finish  of 
samples  of  the  same,  which  shall  be  furnished  at  his  office. 

2.  Inspectors  on  Subdivisions  of  Work. — The  work  under  this  agree- 
ment is  to  be  prosecuted  at  and  from  as  many  different  points  in  such  part 
or  parts  of  the  street  or  avenue  on  the  line  of  the  work  as  the  said  Commis- 
sioner may,  from  time  to  time,  determine,  and  at  each  of  said  points  inspec- 
tors may  be  placed  on  the  day  designated  for  the  commencement  of  the 
work  thereat.     Whenever  any  work  is  in  progress  at  or  from  one  or  more 
points  at  a  time,  an  inspector  may  be  appointed  by  said  Commissioner  to 
supervise   each  subdivision 'of  the  same,  whether  such  subdivision  be  the 
culling  of  the  bridge-stones,  or  the  excavation  for  and  preparation  of  the 
foundation,  or  the  laying  of  the  pavement,  or  the  laying  of  the  bridge-stones 
or  otherwise.     The  aggregate  time  of  all  the  inspectors  so  employed  will  be 
the  time  with  which  the  time  allowed  for  completion  of  the  work  under  this 
agreement  will  be  compared.     The  inspectors  will  be  paid  each  at  the  rate 
of  three  and  one-half  dollars  per  day. 

*xx,  256. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  143 

3.  Right  to  Construct  Sewers,  etc.,  prior  to  Laying  of  Pavement. 
— The  right  to  construct  any  sewer  or  sewers,  or  receiving-basins  or  culverts, 
or  to  build  up  or  adjust  any  man-holes,  or  to  reset  or  renew  any  frames 
and  heads   for  sewer  man-holes,   or  for  Croton  water  or  gas  stop-cocks, 
or  to  lay  gas  or  water  pipes,  or  to  construct  necessary  appurtenances  in 
connection  therewith  in  said  street,  or  to  grant  permits  for  house  connec- 
tions with  sewers  or  with  water  or  gas  pipes,  at  any  time  prior  to  the  laying 
•of  the  new  pavement  over  the  line  of  the  same,  is  expressly  reserved  by 
said  Commissioner  ;  and  said  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  reserves  the 
right  of  suspending  the  work  on  said  pavement  on  any  part  of  the  line  of 
said  street  or  avenue  at  any  time  during  the  construction  of  the  same,  for 
the  purposes  above  stated,  without  other  compensation  to  the  contractor  for 
such  suspension  than  extending  the  time  for  completing  the  work  as  much 
as  it  may,  in  the  opinion  of  the  said  Commissioner,  have  been  delayed  by 
such  suspension  ;  and  said  contractor  shall  not  interfere  with,  or  place  any 
impediment  in  the  way  of  any  person  or  persons  who  may  be  engaged  in 
the  construction  of  such  sewer  or  sewers,  or  in  making  connections  there- 
with, or  doing  other  work  above  specified,  or  in  the  construction  of  any 
receiving-basins  and  culverts,  or  in  setting  or  resetting  any  curb  or  gutter- 
stones  on  the  line  of  the  street  or  avenue. 

Contractor  to  Remove  Incumbrances. — In  case  there  shall  be,  at  any 
time  stipulated  for  the  commencement  of  the  work,  any  earth,  rubbish,  or 
other  incumbrance  on  the  line  of  the  work,  the  same  is  to  be  removed  at 
the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

4.  Bridge-stones. — When  new  bridge-stones  are  required  they  are  to 
be  furnished  in  conformity  with  the  following  description,  to  wit : 

The  new  bridge-stones  to  be  of  blue  stone  equal  in  quality  to  the  best 
North  River  blue  stone,  free  from  seams  and  imperfections.  Each  stone  to 
be  not  less  than  4  nor  more  than  8  feet  long,  except  in  cases  where  espec- 
ially permitted,  and  2  feet  wide,  and  of  a  uniform  thickness,  which  may 
vary  from  5  to  8  inches,  and  dressed  to  a  face  on  top  not  varying  in  even- 
ness by  more  than  one-fourth  of  an  inch,  and  on  the  bottom  bedded,  with 
sides  square  and  full,  and  ends  cut  to  such  bevel  as  shall  be  directed  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Public  Works.  The  new  stone  to  be  in  quality  and  work- 
manship equal  to  the  pattern  at  the  office  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Works,  and  to  be  cut  so  as  to  lay  to  a  joint  not  exceeding  £-inch  from  top 
to  bottom  on  the  ends,  and  ^-inch  on  the  sides.  Old  bridge-stones  shall  be 
relaid  in  accordance  with  the  specifications  for  laying  new  bridge-stones. 

5.  Manhole-heads,  etc. — All  the  frames  and  heads  for  sewer  man- 
holes, and  for  Croton  water  or  gas  stop-cocks,  on  the  line  of  the  work  are 
to  be  reset  or  new  ones  set  if  required,  on  a  level  with  the  new  pavement, 
by  the  Department  of  Public  Works  or  the  gas  company.     The  sewer  man- 
holes, if  below  the  grade,  will  be  built  up  to  the  proper  height  by  said  de- 
partment. 

6.  Old  Curb  and  Gutter  Stones. — The  old  curbstones  along  the  line 
of  the  work,  the  pavement  in  the  intersections  that  may  be  retained,  and 
the  pavements  adjoining,  and  also  the  gutters  of  the  adjoining  pavements, 
as  far  as  may  be  necessary  to  obtain  proper  drainage  and  adjustment  be- 
tween the  old  and  new  pavement,  shall  be  readjusted  and  brought  to  the 
grade  and  lines  of  the  proposed  pavement,  as,  and  to  the  extent  required, 
without  extra  charge  therefor. 


144  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

7.  The  stone-block  pavement  will  be  prepared  in  the  following  manner 
for  a 

Foundation. — The  surface  of  the  stone-block  pavement  must  be  thor- 
oughly swept  with  stiff  brooms  until  all  dirt  and  fine  particles  have  been 
removed  from  the  surface,  and  from  the  joints  to  a  depth  of  two  inches. 

The  surface  must  then  be  brought  to  a  uniform  grade  and  cross-sec- 
tion, not  to  exceed  a  crown  of  5  inches  on  a  roadway  30  feet  wide,  by  filling 
all  depressions  with  a  fine  bituminous  concrete  or  binder,  to  be  composed  of 
clean  broken  stone  not  exceeding  i\  inches  in  their  largest  dimensions, 
thoroughly  screened,  and  coal  tar  residuum,  commonly  known  as  No.  4 
paving  composition. 

The  stone  must  be  heated  by  passing  through  revolving  heaters, 
and  thoroughly  mixed  by  machinery  with  the  paving  composition  in 
the  proportion  of  one  gallon  of  paving  composition  to  one  cubic  foot  of  stone. 

This  binder  must  be  hauled  to  the  work  and  spread  with  hot  iron  rakes 
in  all  holes  or  inequalities  and  depressions  below  the  true  grade  of  the  pave- 
ment, to  such  thickness  that  after  being  thoroughly  compacted  by  tamping 
and  hand-rolling  the  surface  shall  have  a  uniform  grade  and  cross-section, 
and  the  thickness  of  the  binder  at  any  point  shall  be  not  less  than  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch. 

The  upper  surface  shall  be  exactly  parallel  with  the  surface  of  the 
pavement  to  be  laid. 

Upon  this  foundation  shall  be  laid  the  wearing  surface,  or  paving- 
proper,  the  basis  of  which  or  paving  cement,  will  be  pure  asphaltum, 
unmixed  with  any  of  the  products  of  coal  tar. 

The  wearing  surface  will  be  composed  of  : 

1.  Refined  asphaltum. 

2.  Heavy  petroleum  oil. 

3.  Fine  sand,  containing  not  more  than  one  per  centum  of  hydro-sili- 
cate of  alumina. 

4.  Fine  powder  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

The  asphaltum  shall  be  specially  refined  and  brought  to  a  uniform  stand- 
ard of  purity  and  gravity,  of  quality  to  be  approved  by  the  Commissioner 
of  Public  Works. 

The  heavy  petroleum  oil  shall  be  freed  from  all  impurities  and 
brought  to  a  specific  gravity  of  from  18  to  22°  Beaume,  and  fire  test  of  250° 
Fahr. 

From  these  two  hydro-carbons  shall  be  manufactured  an  asphaltic 
cement  which  shall  have  a  fire  test  of  250°  Fahr.,  and,  at  a  temperature  of 
60°  Fahr.,  shall  have  a  specific  gravity  of  1.19,  said  cement  to  be  composed 
of  100  parts  of  pure  asphalt,  and  from  15  to  20  parts  of  heavy  petroleum  oil. 

The  asphaltic  cement  being  made  in  the  manner  above  described,  the 
pavement  mixture  will  be  formed  of  the  following  materials,  and  in  the 
proportions  stated  : 

Asphaltic  cement from  12  to  15 

Sand from  83  to  70 

Pulverized  carbonate  of  lime from    5,to  ijj_ 

r"o~6    7<r* 

The  sand  and  asphaltic  cement  are  to  be  heated  separately  to  about  300° 
Fahr.  The  pulverized  carbonate  of  lime,  while  cold,  shall  be  'mixed  with 
the  hot  sand  in  the  required  proportions,  and  then  mixed  with  the  asphaltic 
cement  at  the  required  temperature,  and  in  the  proper  proportion,  in  a  suit- 
able apparatus,  which  will  effect  a  perfect  mixture. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  145 

The  pavement  mixture  prepared  in  the  manner  thus  indicated,  shall  be 
laid  on  the  foundations  in  two  coats.  The  first  coat,  called  cushion  coat, 
shall  contain  from  2  to  4  per  cent,  more  asphaltic  cement  than  given  above ; 
it  will  be  laid  to  such  depth  as  will  give  a  thickness  of  ^  inch  after  being 
consolidated  by  a  roller.  The  second  coat,  called  surface  coat,  prepared  as 
above  specified,  shall  be  laid  on  the  cushion  coat  ;  it  shall  be  brought  to  the 
ground  in  carts,  at  a  temperature  of  about  250°  Fahr. ,  and  if  the  temper- 
ature of  the  air  is  less  than  50  degrees,  iron  carts,  with  heating  apparatus, 
shall  be  used  in  order  to  maintain  the  proper  temperature  of  the  mixture  ;  it 
shall  then  be  carefully  spread  by  means  of  hot  iron  rakes,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  give  a  uniform  and  regular  grade,  and  to  such  depth  that  after 
having  received  its  ultimate  compression,  it  will  have  a  thickness  of  2 
inches.  The  surface  shall  then  be  compressed  by  hand-rollers,  after  which 
a  small  amount  of  hydraulic  cement  shall  be  swept  over  it,  and  it  shall  then 
be  thoroughly  compressed  by  a  steam  roller  weighing  not  less  than  250 
pounds  to  the  inch  run  ;  the  rolling  to  be  continued  for  not  less  than  five 
hours  for  every  1,000  yards  of  surface. 

The  powdered  carbonate  of  lime  shall  be  of  such  degree  of  fineness 
that  5  to  15  per  centum  of  weight  of  the  entire  mixture  for  the  pavement 
shall  be  of  an  impalpable  powder  of  limestone,  and  the  whole  of -it  shall 
pass  a  No.  26  screen.  The  sand  shall  be  of  such  size  that  none  of  it  shall 
pass  a  No.  80  screen,  and  the  whole  of  it  shall  pass  a  No.  10  screen. 

In  order  to  make  the  gutters,  which  are  consolidated  but  little  with 
traffic,  entirely  impervious  to  water,  a  width  of  12  inches  next  the  curb 
will  be  coated  with  hot  pure  asphalt  and  smoothed  with  hot  smoothing 
irons  in  order  to  saturate  the  pavement  to  a  certain  depth  with  an  excess 
of  asphalt. 

If  rock  asphalt  be  used,  it  shall  be  natural  bituminous  limestone  rock 
(i)  from  the  Sicilian  mines  at  Ragusa,  equal  in  quality  and  composition  to 
that  mined  by  the  United  Limmer  and  Verwohle  Rock  Asphalt  Company, 
Limited,  (2)  from  the  Swiss  mines  at  Val  de  Travers,  equal  in  quality  and 
composition  to  that  mined  by  the  Neuchatel  Rock  and  Asphalt  Company, 
Limited,  or  (3)  from  the  French  mines  at  Seyssel,  equal  in  quality  and  com- 
position to  that  mined  by  the  Compagnie  Generate  des  Asphaltes  de  France, 
and  it  shall  be  prepared  and  laid  as  follows  : 

(i)  The  lumps  of  rock  shall  be  finely  crushed  and  pulverized,  the  powder 
shall  then  be  passed  through  a  fine  sieve.  Nothing  whatever  shall  be  added 
to  or  taken  from  the  powder  obtained  by  grinding  the  bituminous  rock.  The 
powder  shall  contain  9  to  12  per  cent,  natural  bitumen,  88  to  91  per  cent, 
pure  carbonate  of  lime,  and  must  be  free  from  quartz,  sulphates,  iron  pyrites 
or  aluminum.  (2)  This  powder  shall  be  heated  in  a  suitable  apparatus  to 
200°  or  250°  Fahr.,  brought  to  the  ground  at  such  temperature  in  carts  made 
for  the  purpose,  and  then  carefully  spread  on  the  foundation  previously 
prepared,  to  such  a  depth  that  after  having  received  its  ultimate  compres- 
sion, it  will  have  a  thickness  of  two  inches.  (3)  It  shall  be  skillfully  com- 
pressed by  heated  rammers  and  rolled  until  it  shall  have  the  required  thick- 
ness of  two  inches.  (4)  The  surface  to  be  rendered  perfectly  even  by 
heated  smoothers  and  be  rolled  with  a  steam  roller  weighing  not  less  than 
250  pounds  to  the  inch  run,  the  rolling  to  continue  for  not  less  than  five 
hours  for  every  1,000  yards  of  surface. 

8.  Laying  the  Crosswalks,  etc. — The  crosswalks  adjoining  the  new 
pavement  are  to  be  laid,  or  the  present  bridge-stones  shall  be  relaid,  as  the 


146  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

said  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  may  direct,  in  which  last  case  they  shall 
be  dressed  or  redressed  so  as  to  form  one-quarter  of  an  inch  joints  from  top 
to  bottom  when  laid.  All  the  new  bridge-stones,  and  such  of  the  present 
bridge-stones  as  may  be  retained,  are  to  be  well  and  firmly  bedded  on  a 
foundation  of  sand  or  gravel,  not  less  than  six  inches  in  thickness,  and  laid 
with  joints  not  exceeding  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  width  from  top  to 
bottom  on  the  ends.  The  courses  to  be  so  laid  that  the  transverse  joints 
will  be  broken  by  a  lap  of  at  least  one  foot.  The  bridge-stones  and 
pavements  adjoining,  and  also  the  gutters  of  the  adjoining  pavements, 
as  far  as  in  the  opinion  of  the  said  Commissioner  may  be  necessary  to 
obtain  proper  drainage,  will  be  taken  up,  brought  to  the  grade  of  the  new 
pavement  and  relaid,  without  extra  charge  therefor.  The  contractor  shall 
lay  one  or  two  rows  of  paving  blocks  between  the  courses  of  bridge-stones, 
when  directed  so  to  do  by  the  Water  Purveyor. 

9.  Old  Materials. — All  old  materials  which  it  becomes  necessary  to 
remove,  excepting  the  trap  and  granite  blocks,  the  sewer  manhole-heads, 
and  the  frames  and  heads  to  Croton  water  or  gas  stop-cocks,  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  the  property  of  the  contractor,  and  the  same  shall  be  immediately 
removed  by  him  from  the  line  of  the  work. 

10.  Clearing    Up. — All  surplus  materials,  earth,  sand,  rubbish  and 
stones,  except  such  stone  as  shall  be  retained  by  order  of  the  Water  Pur- 
veyor, are  to  be  removed  from  the  line  of  the  work  block  by  block,  as  rap- 
idly as  the  work  progresses.     At  any  time  within  one  month  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  pavement  of  each  block,  or  of  the  entire  work,  if  so  required 
by  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  all  material  except  building  material 
covering  the  stone  pavement  shall  be  swept  into  heaps  and  immediately 
removed  from  the  line  of  the  work  ;  and  unless  this  be  done  by  the  con- 
tractor within  forty-eight  hours  after  being  notified  so  to  do,  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  said  Commissioner,  the  same  shall  be  removed  by  the  said  Commis- 
sioner of  Public  Works,  and  the  amount  of  the  expense  thereof  shall  be 
deducted  out  of  any  moneys  due  or  to  grow  due  to  the  party  of  the  second 
part  under  this  agreement. 

11.  Loss  or  Damage  to  be    Sustained  by  Contractor. — It  is  further 
agreed  that  all  loss  or  damage  arising  out  of  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be 
done  under  this  agreement,  or  from  any  unforseen  obstructions  or  difficul- 
ties which  may  be  encountered  in  the  prosecution  of  the  same,  or  from  the 
action  of  the  elements,  or  from  incumbrances  on  the  line  of  the  work,  shall 
"be  sustained  by  the  said  contractor. 

In  case  any  injury  is  done  along  the  line  of  the  work  in  consequence  of 
any  act  or  omission  on  the  part  of  the  contractor  or  his  employees  or  agents 
in  carrying  out  any  of  the  provisions  or  requirements  of  this  contract,  the 
contractor  shall  make  such  repairs  as  are  necessary  in  consequence  thereof, 
at  his  own  expense  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Commissioner  of  Public 
Works,  and  in  case  of  failure  on  the  part  of  the  contractor  to  promptly  make 
such  repairs,  they  may  be  made  by  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  and 
the  expense  thereof  shall  be  deducted  out  of  any  moneys  to  grow  due,  or 
retained  from,  the  party  of  the  second  part  under  this  contract. 

12.  Work  may  be  Suspended. — The  prosecution  of  the  work  shall  be 
suspended  for  such  periods  as  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  may  from 
time  to  time  determine  ;  no  claim  or  demand  will  be  made  by  the  contractor 
for  damages  by  reason  of  such  suspensions  in  the  work,  but  the  period  of 
such  suspensions,  to  be  determined  in  writing  by  the  said  Commissioner, 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  147 

will  be  excluded  in  computing  the^time  hereinafter  limited  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  work.  During  such  suspensions  all  materials  delivered  upon, 
but  not  placed  in  the  work,  shall  be  neatly  piled  or  removed  so  as  not  to 
obstruct  public  travel. 

13.  "  Contractor,"  etc.,  to  Mean. — Whenever  the  word  "contractor," 
or  the  words  "  party  of  the  second  part,"  or  a  pronoun  in  place  of  either  of 
them  is  used  in  this  contract,  the  same  shall  be  considered  as  referring  to 
and  meaning  the  party  or  parties,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  the  second  part  to 
this  agreement. 

130.  Security  to  be  Retained  for  Repairs. — And  it  is  further  agreed, 
that  if,  at  any  time  during  the  period  of  fifteen  years  from  the  date  of  the 
acceptance  by  said  Commissioner  of  the  whole  work  under  this  agreement, 
the  said  work,  or  any  part  or  parts  thereof  shall,  in  the  opinion  of  said 
Commissioner,  require  repairs  or  sanding,  and  the  said  Commissioner  shall 
notify  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  to  make  the  repairs  or  do  the  sand- 
ing so  required,  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  shall  immediately 
commence  and  complete  the  same  to  the  satisfaction  of  said  Commis- 
sioner ;  and  in  case  of  failure  or  neglect  on  his  part  to  do  so  within  forty- 
eight  hours  from  the  date  of  the  service  of  the  aforesaid  notice,  then  the 
said  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  shall  have  the  right  to  purchase  such 
materials  as  he  shall  deem  necessary,  and  to  employ  such  person  or  persons 
as  he  may  deem  proper,  and  to  undertake  and  complete  the  said  repairs  or 
sanding,  and  to  pay  the  expense  thereof,  out  of  any  sum  of  money  due  the 
contractor  or  retained  by  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part,  as  herein  men- 
tioned. And  the  parties  of  the  first  part  hereby  agree,  upon  the  expiration 
of  the  said  period  of  fifteen  years,  provided  that  the  said  work  shall  at 
that  time  be  in  good  order,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  the  said  work  shall  have 
been  put  in  good  order  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  said  Commissioner,  to  pay 
to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  the  whole  of  the  sum  last  aforesaid  or 
such  part  thereof  as  may  remain  after  the  expenses  of  making  the  said 
repairs  in  the  manner  aforesaid  shall  have  been  paid  therefrom.  And  it  is 
hereby  further  agreed,  between  the  parties  hereto,  that  if  the  termination 
of  the  said  period  of  fifteen  years  after  the  completion  and  acceptance  of 
the  work  done  under  the  agreement  shall  fall  within  the  months  of 
December,  January,  February  or  March,  then  and  in  that  case  said  months 
of  December,  January,  February  or  March  shall  not  be  included  in  the 
computation  of  said  period  of  fifteen  years,  during  which  the  work  is  to  be 
kept  in  repair  by  the  contractor,  as  aforesaid  ;  and  also  in  that  case  the 
payment  to  be  made  under  the  provisions  of  this  paragraph  shall  not  be 
made  before  the  isth  of  April  next  thereafter,  unless  otherwise  specially 
permitted  by  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works. 

The  party  of  the  second  part  further  agrees  that  he  will  lay  and  restore 
the  pavement  over  trenches  made  for  laying  water  and  gas  pipes,  sewers 
and  for  other  purposes  permitted  by  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  at 
the  contract  price,  and  when  once  so  laid  and  restored,  maintain  the  same 
in  the  same  state  of  repair  as  agreed  to  for  the  other  parts  of  the  pavement. 
He  further  agrees  not  to  demand  additional  or  further  payment  on  account 
of  injury  or  sinking  of  the  pavement  so  laid  and  restored. 

14.  Measurement. — The  said  party  of  the  second  part  further  agrees 
that  the  return  of  the  engineer  appointed  by  the  Commissioner  of  Public 
Works  to  survey  the  work,  shall  be  the  account  by  which  the  amount  of 
work  done  shall  be  computed. 


148  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

15.  Work  to  Commence. — The  said  party  of  the  second  part  hereby 
further  agrees  that  he  will  commence  the  aforesaid  work  on  such  a  day  and 
at  such  point  or  points  as  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  may  designate, 
and  progress  therewith  so  as  to  fully  complete  the  same,  in  accordance 
with  this  agreement,  on  or  before  the  expiration  of  fifty  days  next  there- 
after ;  and  that  in  the  computation  of  said  days  the  time  (aggregated  in 
days  and  parts  of  days)  during  which  the  work  required  by  this  contract 
has  been  delayed  in  consequence  of  the  condition  of  the  weather,  or  by  any 
act  or  omission  on  the  part  of  the  parties  of  the  first  part  (all  of  which  shall 
be  determined  by  the  said  Commmissioner  of  Public  Works,  who  shall 
certify  to  the  same  in  writing),  and  also  Sundays  and  holidays  on  which  no 
work  is  done,  and  days  on  which  the  prosecution  of  the  whole  work  is  sus- 
pended by  written  order  of  the  said  Commissioner,  shall  be  excluded. 

But  neither  an  extension  of  time,  for  any  reason,  beyond  the  date  fixed 
herein  for  the  completion  of  the  work,  nor  the  doing  or  acceptance  of  any 
part  of  the  work  called  for  by  this  contract,  shall  be  deemed  a  waiver  by 
the  said  Commissioner  of  the  right  to  abrogate  this  contract  for  abandon- 
ment or  delay  in  the  manner  provided  for  in  paragraph  (17)  of  this  agree- 
ment. 

Damages  for  Non-Completzon. — And  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part  hereby  further  agrees  that  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part  shall  be  and 
they  are  hereby  authorized  to  deduct  and  retain  out  of  the  moneys  which 
may  be  due  or  become  due  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  under  this 
agreement,  as  damages  for  the  non-completion  of  the  work  aforesaid 
within  the  time  hereinbefore  stipulated  for  its  completion,  or  within  such 
further  time  as  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  this  agreement  shall  be 
fixed  or  allowed  for  such  performance  or  completion,  the  sum  of  twenty 
dollars  for  each  and  every  day  the  aggregate  time  of  all  the  inspectors 
employed  upon  said  work  may  exceed  the  time  stipulated  for  its  com- 
pletion, or  such  stipulated  time  as  the  same  may  be  increased  as  hereinbe- 
fore provided,  which  said  sum  of  twenty  dollars  per  day  is  hereby,  in  view 
of  the  difficulty  of  estimating  such  damages,  agreed  upon,  fixed  and  deter- 
mined by  the  parties  hereto,  as  the  liquidated  damages  that  the  parties 
of  the  first  part  will  suffer  by  reason  of  such  default,  and  not  by  way  of 
penalty. 

16.  Personal  Attention. — The  said  party  of  the  second  part  hereby 
further  agrees  that  he  will  give  his   personal   attention   constantly  to  the 
faithful  prosecution  of  the  said  work  ;  that  he  will  not  sublet  the  aforesaid 
work,  or  any  part  thereof,  without  the  previous  written  consent  of  the  Com- 
missioner of   Public   Works  indorsed  on  this  agreement,  but  will  keep  the 
same  under  his  own  control  ;  that  he  will  not  assign,  by  power  of  attorney 
or  otherwise,  any  of  the  moneys  payable  under  this  agreement,  unless  by 
and  with   the  like  consent,  to  be  signified  in  like  manner ;  that  no  right 
under  tins  contract,  nor  to  any  moneys  to  become  due  hereunder,  shall  be 
asserted  against  the  Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Commonalty  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  or   any  department,   bureau,  or  officer  thereof,  by  reason  of   any 
so-called  assignment,  in  law  or  equity  of  this  contract,  or  any  part  hereof  ; 
that  no  person  other  than  the  party  signing  this  agreement  as  the  party  of 
the  second  part  has  now  any  claim  hereunder  ;  that  no  claim  shall  be  made 
excepting  under  this  specific  clause,  or  under  paragraph  18  of  this  agree- 
ment ;  and  that  he  will  punctually  pay  the  workmen  who  shall  be  employed 
on  the  aforesaid  work  in  cash  current,  and  not  in  what  is  denominated  store 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  149 

pay.  If  at  any  time  any  overseer  or  workman  employed  by  the  contractor 
shall  be  declared  by  the  Water  Purveyor  to  be  unfaithful  or  incom- 
petent, the  contractor,  on  receiving  written  notice,  shall  forth  with  dismiss 
such  person,  and  will  not  again  employ  him  on  any  part  of  the  work. 

17.  Contract  May  Be  Declared  Annulled  for  Violation,  etc. — The 
said  party  of  the  second  part  further  agrees  that  if  at  any  time  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Public  Works  shall  be  of  opinion,  and  shall  so  certify  in  writing,  that 
the  said  work,  or  any  part  thereof,  is  unnecessarily  delayed,  or  that  the  said 
contractor  is  willfully  violating  any  of  the  conditions  or  covenants  of  this 
contract,  or  is  executing  the  same  in  bad  faith,  or  if  the  said  work  be  not 
fully  completed  within  the  time  named  in  this  contract  for  its  completion, 
he  shall  have  the  power  to  notify  the  aforesaid  contractor  to  discontinue  all 
work,  or  any  part  thereof,  under  this  contract,  by  a  written  notice  to  be 
served  upon  the  contractor,  either  personally  or  by  leaving  said  notice  at 
his  residence  or  with  his  agent  in  charge  of  the  work,  and  thereupon  the 
said  contractor  shall  discontinue  said  work,  or  such  part  thereof,  and  the 
Commissioner  of  Public  Works  shall  thereupon  have  the  power  to  place 
such  and  so  many  persons  as  he  may  deem  advisable,  by  contract  or  other- 
wise, to  work  at  and  complete  the  work  herein  described,  or  such  part 
thereof,  and  to  use  such  materials  as  he  may  find  upon  the  line  of  said 
work,  and  to  procure  other  materials  for  the  completion  of  the  same,  and  to 
charge  the  expense  of  said  labor  and  materials  to  the  aforesaid  contractor, 
and  the  expense  so  charged  shall  be  deducted  and  paid  b)'  the  party  of  the 
first  part,  out  of  such  moneys  as  may  be  then  due,  or  may  at  any  time 
thereafter  grow  due,  to  the  said  contractor,  under  and  by  virtue  of  this 
agreement,  or  any  part  thereof ;  and  in  case  such  expense  is  less  than  the 
sum  which  would  have  been  payable  under  this  contract  if  the  same  had 
been  completed  by  said  contractor,  he  shall  forfeit  all  claim  to  the  differ- 
ence ;  and  in  case  such  expense  shall  exceed  the  last  said  sum,  he  shall  pay 
the  amount  of  such  excess  to  the  parties  of  the  first  part. 

1 8.  Claims  for  Labor,  etc. — And  it  is  further  agreed  by  and  between 
the  parties  hereto,  that  if,  at  any  time  before  or  within  thirty  days  after  the 
whole  work  herein  agreed  to  be  performed  has  been  completed  and  accepted 
by  the  parties  of  the  first  part,  any  person  or  persons  claiming  to  have  per- 
formed any  labor  or  furnished  any  materials  towards  the  performance  or 
completion  of  this  contract,  shall  file  with  the  said  Department  of  Public 
Works,  or  with  the  Bureau  having  charge  of  said  work,  and  with  the  head 
of  the  Finance  Department  of  the  said  City  of  New  York,  any  such  notice 
as  is  described  in  the  Act  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
passed  May  22,  1878,  entitled  "  An  Act  to  secure  the  payment  of  laborers, 
mechanics,  merchants,  traders  and  persons  furnishing  materials  towards 
the  performing  of  any  public  work  in  the  cities  of  the  State  of  New  York," 
then,  and  in  every  such  case,  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part  shall  retain, 
anything  herein  contained  to  the  contrary  thereof  notwithstanding,  from 
the  moneys  under  their  control,  and  due  or  to  grow  due  under  this  agree- 
ment, so  much  of  such  moneys  as  shall  be  sufficient  to  pay  off,  satisfy  and 
discharge  the  amount  in  such  notice  alleged  or  claimed  to  be  due  to  the  person 
or  persons  filing  such  notice,  together  with  the  reasonable  costs  of  any  action 
or  actions  brought  to  enforce  such  claim  or  the  lien  created  by  the  filing  of 
such  notice.     The  money  so  retained  shall  be  retained  by  the  said  parties  of 
the  first  part  until  the  lien  thereon  created  by  the  said  act  and  the  filing  of 
the  said  notice  shall  be  discharged,  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  the  said  act. 


150  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  hereby  further  agrees  that  he  will 
furnish  said  Commissioner  with  satisfactory  evidence  that  all  persons  who 
have  done  work  or  furnished  materials  under  this  agreement,  and  who  may 
have  given  written  notice  to  the  said  Commissioner,  at  any  time  within  ten 
days  after  the  completion  of  the  work  aforesaid,  that  any  balance  for  such 
work  or  materials  is  still  due  and  unpaid,  have  been  fully  paid  or  satisfac- 
torily secured. 

Amounts  Claimed  Retained. — And  in  case  such  evidence  be  not  fur- 
nished as  aforesaid,  such  amount  as  may  be  necessary  to  meet  the  claims  of 
the  persons  aforesaid  shall  be  retained  from  any  moneys  due  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part  under  this  agreement  until  the  liabilities  aforesaid  shall 
be  fully  discharged  or  secured,  or  such  notice  be  withdrawn. 

19.  Indemnification  of  City. — And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part 
further  agrees  that  during  the  performance  of  said  work  he  will  place  proper 
guards  upon  and  around  the  same  for  the  prevention  of  accidents,  and  at 
night  will  put  up  and  keep  suitable  and  sufficient  lights,  and  that  he  will 
indemnify  and  save  harmless  the  parties  of  the  first  part  against  and  from 
all  suits  and  actions,  of  every  name  and  description,  brought  against  them, 
and  all  costs  and  damages  to  which  they  may  be  put  for  or  on  account  or  by 
reason  of  any  injury  or  alleged  injury  to  the  person  or  property  of  another T 
resulting  from  negligence  or  carelessness  in  the  performance  of  the  work, 
or  in  guarding  the  same,  or  from  any  improper  materials  used  in  its  prose- 
cution, or  by  or  on  account  of  any  act  or  omission  of  the  said  party  of  the 
second  part  or  his  agents  ;  and  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  hereby  fur- 
ther agrees  that  the  whole  or  so  much  of  the  moneys  due  to  him  under  and 
by  virtue  of  this  agreement,  as  shall  or  may  be  considered  necessary  by  the 
Commissioner    of  Public  Works,  shall  and  may  be  retained  by  the   said 
parties  of  the  first  part  until  all  such  suits  or  claims  for  damages  as  afore- 
said shall  have  been  settled,  and  evidence  to  that  effect  furnished  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  said  Commissioner. 

20.  And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  hereby  agrees  to  indemnify 
and  save  harmless  the  parties  of  the  first  part  against  and  from  all  suits 
and  actions  of  every  nature  and  description  arising  out  of  the  claim  or 
claims  of  any  person  or  persons  claiming  to  be  patentees  of  any  process 
connected  with  the  work  herein  agreed  to  be  performed,  or  of  any  material 
or  materials  used  upon  said  work.     And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part 
hereby  further  agrees  to  execute,  with  two  sufficient  sureties,  the  bond,  in 
the  sum  of  $10,000  attached  to  this  agreement,  for  the  indemnification  of 
the  parties  of  the   first  part  against  and  from  all  such  suits   and  actions 
as  aforesaid. 

21.  Prices  for  Work. — And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  hereby 
further  agrees  to  receive  the  following  prices  as  full  compensation  for  fur- 
nishing all  the  materials  and  performing  all  the  labor  which  may  be  required 
in  the  prosecution  of  the  whole  of  the  work  to  be  done  under  this  agree- 
ment and  in  all  respects  performing  and  completing  the  same,  to  wit : 

For  completed  asphalt  pavement,  per  square  yard,  the  sum  of 


For  the  new  bridge  stone,  per  square  foot,  the  sum  of. 


It  being  expressly  understood  that  the  measurement  shall  be  taken 
after  the  laying  and  setting  of  the  pavement,  and  that  the  aforesaid  prices 
cover  the  furnishing  of  all  the  different  materials  and  all  the  labor,  the 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  151 

maintaining  of  said  pavement  in  good  order,  and  sprinkling  with  clean 
sharp  sand,  such  portions  of  said  pavement,  and  as  often  as  the  said  Com- 
missioner shall  direct,  and  for  the  period  of  fifteen  years,  and  the  perform- 
ance of  all  the  work  mentioned  in  this  specification  and  agreement. 

Examinations. — After  the  completion  of  the  work,  should  the  Water 
Purveyor  require  it  for  his  more  perfect  satisfaction,  the  contractor  shall 
make  such  openings  and  to  such  extent  through  such  part  or  parts  of  the 
said  work  as  the  Water  Purveyor  shall  direct,  and  he  shall  make  the  same 
good  again  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Water  Purveyor.  Should  the  work  be 
found  faulty  in  any  respect,  the  whole  of  the  expense  incurred  thereby  shall 
be  defrayed  by  the  contractor,  but  if  otherwise  by  the  parties  of  the  first 
part  to  this  agreement. 

22.  Payments  when  Made. — And  the  said  party  of  the  second  part 
further  agrees  that  he  shall  not  be  entitled  to  demand  or  receive  payment 
for  any  portion  of  the  aforesaid  work  or  materials  until  the  same  shall  be 
fully  completed  in  the  manner  set  forth  in  this  agreement,  and  such  com- 
pletion shall  be  duly  certified  by  the  Engineer,  Inspecter  and  Water  Pur- 
veyor in  charge  of  the  work,  and  until  each  and  every  of  the  stipulations 
hereinbefore  mentioned  are  complied  with,  and  the  work  completed  to  satis- 
faction of  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  and  accepted  by  him  ;  where- 
upon the  parties  of  the  first  part,  under  chapter  346  of  the  Laws  of  1889,  will 
pay,  and  hereby  bind  themselves  and  their  successors  to  pay,  to  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  in  cash,  on  or  before  the  expiration  of  thirty  days  from 
the  time  of  the  completion  of  the  work  and  the  acceptance  of  the  same  by 
the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  70  per  cent,  of  the  whole  of  the  moneys, 
accruing  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part  under  this  agreement,  and  the 
balance  of  the  moneys  that  may  be  due  to  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
under  this  agreement,  as  follows  :  Three  per  cent,  of  the  whole  amount  of 
money  accruing  to  said  party  of  second  part  on  the  expiration  of  the  sixth 
year,  and  a  like  further  sum  of  three  per  cent,  at  the  expiration  of  each 
succeeding  year  thereafter  until  the  whole  or  as  much  as  may  remain  due 
of  said  contract  price  shall  be  paid,  should  the  party  of  the  first  part  per- 
form the  work  stipulated  under  section  (isA.)  of  this  agreement.  But  in 
case  the  amount  payable  under  this  contract  shall  be  five  thousand  dollars 
or  over,  payments  will  be  made  to  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  in  con- 
formity with  and  subject  to  the  terms  and  conditions  of  an  ordinance  of 
the  Mayor,  Aldermen  and  Commonalty  of  the  City  of  New  York,  passed 
December  30,  1854,  and  amended  March  8,  1861,  entitled,  "  An  ordinance 
to  authorize  the  issue  of  Bonds  upon  Contracts  payable  by  Assessments  in 
pursuance  of  the  Act  of  the  Legislature,  passed  April  16,  1852,"  by  monthly 
installments  of  seventy  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  work  performed,  and 
also  on  the  quantity  of  materials  furnished  and  delivered,  should  the  Com- 
missioner of  Public  Works  deem  it  advisable  so  to  do,  in  which  case,  how- 
ever, the  quantity  returned  shall  be  such  that  the  amount  paid  will  be  fairly 
due  and  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  and  stipulations  of  this  agree- 
ment ;  provided,  the  amount  of  work  done  on  each  installment  shall  not 
be  less  than  fifteen  hundred  dollars  ;  and  provided,  that  the  parties  of  the 
first  part  may  at  all  times  reserve  and  retain  out  of  said  installments,  or  any 
of  them,  all  such  sum  or  sums  as  by  the  terms  hereof,  or  of  any  act  of  the 
Legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York,  or  of  any  ordinance  or  resolution  of 
the  Common  Council  of  the  City  of  New  York,  passed  prior  to  the  date 
hereof,  they  are  or  may  be  authorized  to  reserve  or  retain  ;  and  provided. 


152  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

that  nothing  herein  contained  be  construed  to  affect  the  right  hereby 
reserved  of  the  said  Commissioner  to  reject  any  return  or  certificate  of  the 
Engineer  or  Inspector  having  charge  of  the  work,  .should  such  return  or 
certificate  be,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  not  in 
accordance  with  the  facts  of  the  case,  or  the  requirements  of  this  agree- 
ment, or  be  otherwise  improperly  given,  and  to  reject  the  whole  or  any  por- 
tion of  the  aforesaid  work,  should  the  same  or  any  part  thereof  not  be  in 
accordance  with  the  requirements  of  this  contract ;  and  provided  also, 
that  where  the  contractor,  although  the  lowest  bidder  in  the  gross  calcula- 
tion, is  to  receive  unusual  or  extraordinary  prices  for  the  different  items,  or 
any  of  them,  of  the  worki  when  considered  separately,  nothing  herein  con- 
tained shall  be  construed  to  affect  the  right  of  the  Commissioner  hereby 
retained  to  determine  the  amount  that  may  be  due,  from  time  to  time,  not 
necessarily  by  the  rates  agreed  upon  in  this  contract,  but  by  causing  an 
estimate  to  be  made  of  the  value  of  the  work  done,  taking  as  a  basis  of  the 
calculation  the  whole  amount  of  money  that  will  have  become  due, 
according  to  the  terms  of  this  contract,  when  the  whole  work  shall  be 
completed. 

23.  It  is  further  expressly  understood  and  agreed  by  and  between  the 
parties  hereto,  that  the  action  of  the  engineer  or  surveyor  by  which  the 
said  contractor  is  to  be  bound  and  concluded  according  to  the  terms  of  this 
contract,  shall  be  that  evidenced  by  his  final  certificate,  all  prior  certificates 
upon  which  seventy  per  cent,  payments  may  be  made  being  merely  esti- 
mates, and  subject  to  the  corrections  of  such  final  certificates,  which  may 
be  made  without  notice  to  the  contractor  thereof,  or  of  the  measurements 
upon  which  the  same  is  based. 

24.  And  it  is  hereby  expressly  agreed  and  understood  by  and  between 
the  parties  hereto,  that  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part,  their  successors 
and  assigns,  shall  not,  nor  shall  any  department  or  officer  of  the  City  of 
New  York,  be  precluded  or  estopped  by  any  return  or  certificate  made  or 
given  by  any  engineer,  inspector  or  other  officer,  agent  or  appointee  of  said 
Department  of  Public  Works,  or  said  parties  of  the  first  part,  under  or  in 
pursuance  of  anything  in  this  agreement  contained,    from    at  any  time 
showing  the  true  and  correct  amount  and  character  of  the  work  which 
shall  have  been  done  and  materials  which  shall  have  been  furnished  by 
the  said  party  of  the  second  part  or  any  other  person  or  persons  under  this 
agreement. 

In  witness  whereof,  the Commissioner  of  Public  Works 

has  hereunto  set  his  hand  and  seal  on  behalf  of  the  said  parties  of  the  first 
part,  and  the  said  paty  of  the  second  part  has  also  hereunto  set  his  hand 

and  seal ;  and  said Commissioner  and  party  hereto  of  the  second 

part  have  executed  this  agreement  in  triplicate,  one  part  of  which  is  to 
remain  with  the  said  Commissioner,  one  other  to  be  filed  with  the  Comp- 
troller of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  the  third  to  be  delivered  to  the  said 
party  hereto  of  the  second  part,  the  day  and  date  herein  first  above 
written. 

Signed  and  sealed  in  presence  of 

Commissioner  of  Public  Works. 

. .  Contractor. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  153 

ASPHALT    PAVEMENT    IN    NEW    YORK.* 

The  specifications  for  laying  asphalt  pavement  on  Park  Avenue, 
in  New  York  City,  over  existing  stone  pavements,  which  we  printed 
in  full  October  5,  are  attracting  some  attention,  and  the  Tribune, 
which  has  criticised  Mr.  Gilroy,  Commissioner  of  Public  Works, 
calls  them  a  refreshing  illustration  of  the  way  in  which*  public  work 
ought  to  be  done.  A  point  of  interest  noticed  was  the  provision 
for  retaining  30  per  cent,  of  the  contract  price  subject  to  the  con- 
tractor's keeping  the  pavement  in  repair  fifteen  years. 

The  Tribune  commends  this,  even  though  it  may  naturally 
involve  an  increase  in  the  price  paid  by  the  city  for  the  work. 

The  Department,  though,  has  valid  precedents  for  this  provis- 
ion, as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  articles  on  Pavements  and 
Street  Railroads  in  these  columns. 

The  usual  requirement  of  the  City  of  London,  as  will  be  seen  in 
our  issue  of  February  4,  1888,  was  that  the  contractors  maintain  the 
pavement  in  good  repair  two  years  without  cost  to  the  city,  and  after 
that,  fifteen  years  more  at  a  price  named  at  the  time  of  bidding;  the 
pavement  to  be  in  good  condition  at  the  end  of  seventeen  years  and 
then  to  weigh  not  less  than  a  given  amount  per  square  yard.  In  Paris 
the  practice  has  been  rather  to  compel  the  contractors  to  guarantee 
the  condition  of  the  pavement  for  long  terms  of  years  outright,  as 
appears  in  our  issues  of  April  7  and  October  13,  1888.  This  is 
entirely  reasonable,  and  any  community  can  afford  to  pay  respon- 
sible parties  an  extra  price  as  an  insurance  premium. 

For  any  work  experimental  in  its  nature,  or  not  fully  estab- 
lished in  character  by  actual  test,  the  method  proposed  is  unques- 
tionably proper. 

It  is  also  proper  to  keep  in  view  the  importance  of  exacting 
from  the  contractors  what  they  promise,  and  especially  is  this  true 
in  a  city  where  politics  sometimes  interferes  with  administrative 
work. 

THE    ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS    OF    BERLIN,  f 

The  annual  reports  published  by  the  Municipality  of  Berlin 
afford  some  interesting  reading  with  regard  to  the  cost,  etc.,  of 
the  asphalt  paving  in  that  city  since  its  introduction.  The  first 
experiments  with  Val  de  Travers  asphalt  were  made  in  1873.  These 
proving  satisfactory,  a  commencement  on  a  small  scale  was  made  in 
1877,  when  2,556  square  meters  were  laid  down.  From  that  year 
the  extension  of  asphalt  pavement  grew  rapidly.  At  the  end  of  1878, 
23,586  square  meters  of  the  public  streets  of  Berlin  were  paved  with 
asphalt;  at  the  close  of  1879,63,258  square  meters;  1880,  106,223 
*  Ed.  xx,  282.  f  xvii,  346. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 


square  meters;  1881,  125,034  square  meters.  By  April  i,  1883, 
187,672  square  meters  of  asphalt  pavement  had  been  laid  down  ;  at 
the  same  date  in  1884,  253,586  square  meters;  in  1885,  322,042 
square  meters;  in  1886,  359,409  square  meters;  in  1887,  about 
412,000  square  meters.  At  present  the  superficies  of  asphalt  paving* 
in  Berlin  is  about  470,000  square  meters,  and  further  76,000  square 
meters  have  been  ordered  to  be  executed.  The  above  figures  show 
that  asphalt  pavement,  notwithstanding  its  reported  disadvantages, 
is  in  great  favor  at  Berlin,  at  any  rate.  As  to  expenses,  according  to 
the  Builder,  a  square  meter  of  asphalt  paving  costs  there,  on  an  aver- 
age, 17  marks  50  pfennigs  (17  s.  6^.),  while  the  cost  of  maintenance 
for  twenty  years,  by  contract,  is  7  marks  50  pfennigs  (7^.  6d.\  The 
total  cost  per  square  meter  of  asphalt  pavement  for  twenty  years  is, 
therefore,  25  marks  (^i  5^.).  This  is  only  75  pfennigs  (9^.)  more 
per  square  meter  than  the  cost  of  granite  pavement.  From  the 
report  of  the  Municipality  of  Berlin,  it  appears  that  the  complaints 
with  regard  to  the  slippery  condition  of  asphalt  pavement  are  grad- 
ually disappearing.  On  the  one  hand,  great  improvements,  by  the 
light  of  experience,  have  been  introduced  in  the  treatment  of  the 
asphalt ;  on  the  other  hand,  both  "  drivers  and  horses  are  getting 
more  and  more  used  to  the  new  pavement."  The  cleansing  of  the 
pavement  also  leaves  little  to  be  desired,  although  only  forty-five 
boys  are  engaged  in  the  work  of  cleaning  nearly  500,000  square 
meters. 

COST    OF    ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS    IN    LIVERPOOL.* 

Mr.  Dunscombe,  City  Engineer  of  Liverpool,  sends  the  following 
table  as  to  the  cost  in  Liverpool  of  pavements  of  compressed  natural 
asphalt : 


Thickness 
of 
Asphalt. 

Price    for   con- 
struction and 
maintenance 
o  f     carriage- 
way for  three 
years  per  su- 
perficial yard 
per  annum. 

Price  for  main- 
tenance    of 
carriage-way 
from  year  to 
year  by  con- 
tractor,    per 
superficial 
yard  per  an- 
num. 

Price  for  main- 
tenance    of 
carriage-way 
by  contractor 
for  a  further 
period      of 
thirteen  years 
per    superfi- 
cial yard. 

Price    for  repairs 
by  contractor  for 
carriage-way, 
per     superficial 
yard  repaired. 

I 
y%  inch. 

2 

3 

4 

5 

i      inch. 
i*£  inch. 
\yz  inch, 
i^  inch, 
2     inch. 
2^  inch. 

5S.  6d. 
78. 

8s.  6d. 
IDS.  3d. 
us.  3d. 
I2S.  3d. 

3d. 
4d. 
4d. 
9d. 
6d. 
6d. 

3S.  3d. 
43.  4d. 
45.  4d. 
93.  gd. 
6s.  6d. 
6s.  6d. 

9s. 
us.  3d. 
133.  6d. 
i6s. 

i8s. 

20S. 

*xv,  485. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 


155 


The  reason  for  the  high  prices  in  the  fifth  column  is  the  small 
amount  of  repairs  required  and  the  loss  of  time  consequent  on  this. 

By  the  terms  of  the  contracts  with  those  putting  down  pave- 
ments, all  repairs  are  to  be  made  on  twenty-four  hours'  notice  from 
the  City  Engineer,  and  such  repairs  do  not  pay  the  contractor,  often, 
for  the  work  done.  Column  4  of  the  table  is  obtained  by  multiply- 
ing the  quantities  in  the  previous  column  by  thirteen. 

COST    OF    MAINTAINING     ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS    IN    LONDON.* 

Return  showing  the  annual  cost  of  maintaining  the  carriage-way  pave- 
ments in  some  of  the  principal  thoroughfares  of  the  city  of  London. 
Average  for  fifteen  years,  from  City  Surveyor  William  Hay  wood's 
report,  January,  1882  : 


Name  of  Thoroughfare. 

Description  of  Pavement. 

Annual  cost  of 
maintenance 
per  yard  su- 
perficial. 

Bishopsgate  Street  Within  

Val  de  Travers  Asphalt. 

s.  d. 

3 

Cheapside  and  Poultry 

6 

Fenchurch  Street,  between  Gracechurch 
Street  and  Railway  Place     

11 

6 

Finsbury  Pavement  and  Moorgate 

it 

O      9 

Gracechurch  Street. 

11 

o 

Gresham  Street     

it 

3 

King  William  Street,  narrow  portion  
London  Wall     . 

<( 
.< 

3 

O      9 

Moorgate  Street,  between  Coleman  Street 
Buildings  and  London  Wall  

<t 

o    9 

Moorgate  Street,  between  Lothbury  and 
Telegraph  Streets         

ii 

I      O 

New  Broad  Street  and  Old  Broad  Street. 
Paternoster  Row  ,  

«< 

o    9 

I      O 

Queen  Street,   between    Cheapside  and 
Pancras  Lane  

o    9 

Queen  Street,  between  Pancras  Lane  and 
Queen  Victoria  Street  

1C 

i     3 

Threadneedle  Street  

(( 

I     3 

Queen    Victoria    Street,    from    Mansion 
House  to  Canon  Street  

<4 

o     6 

Aldgate  

Limmer  Asphalt. 

o    9 

Cornhill  

t« 

o     9 

Lombard  Street  

<« 

o    9 

Mark  Lane  

« 

I      O 

Mincing  Lane  

ii 

o     9 

Moorgate  Street,  from  Telegraph  Street 
to  Coleman  Street  Buildings 

« 

O     9 

Newgate  Street  

ii 

o    9 

Fenchurch  Street  (Eastern  end) 

Societe  Francaise  des 

O      9 

King  Street,  Cheapside  

Asphalt. 

o    9 

Princes  Street  (part  of)  

it 

i     3 

Philpot  Lane  ... 

it 

o    6 

Milton  Street  

" 

o    6 

Average  of  16  Val  de  Travers,  is, 
Average  of  5  Societe  I 

Average  of  7  Limmer,  9 
Vancaise,  nd. 

Vzd. 

*xxi,  98. 


156  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

IMPROPER    LAYING    AND    MAINTENANCE    OF    PAVEMENTS.* 

BOSTON,  April  23,  1887. 

SIR  : — I  desire  to  call  attention  to  the  asphalt  pavement  on 
Columbus  Avenue.  This  is  the  principal  piece  of  asphalt  in  Bos- 
ton, I  believe,  and  was  laid  only  about  three  years  ago.  But  it 
shows  what  result  may  be  expected  from  improper  laying  and  caring 
for  road-bed  surfaces.  There  is  a  double  line  of  horse  car  tracks 
down  the  middle  of  this  street,  thus  dividing  the  surface  in  two 
strips  of  asphalt  separated  by  a  strip  of  stone-block  pavement.  Now, 
instead  of  protecting  each  side  of  the  track  by  block  pavement  to 
the  full  width  of  gauge  of  large  trucks,  the  block  extends  only  about 
20  inches  on  one  side  (the  north-west)  and  from  4  to  8  inches  on 
the  south-east  (that  is,  one  header  and  one  stretcher).  The  conse- 
quence is  that  the  asphalt  is  all  worn  and  rotted  down  next  to  the 
track  on  the  south-east  side  for  a  width  of  14  to  1 6  inches,  and  on 
the  north-west  side  about  the  width  of  a  wheel-tire,  the  marks  of 
the  heavy  truck  wheels  measuring  seven  feet  out  from  the  edge  of 
the  inside  rail  of  track  on  each  side.  Now,  if  the  pavement  of  stone 
blocks  had  been  carefully  laid  out  to  the  full  width  of  seven  feet 
from  inside  rail,  and  laid  on  a  solid  concrete  foundation,  so  as  to 
support  the  outer  wheel  of  the  heavy  truck  while  the  other  wheel 
was  running  in  the  groove  of  the  inside,  the  asphalt  would  have 
worn  as  evenly  next  to  the  pavement  as  farther  away  from  it.  Just 
at  present  these  worn  ruts,  some  2  to  4  inches  deep  on  the  south- 
east side  of  the  track,  are  being  repaired.  That  is,  the  asphalt  is 
cut  out  in  sections,  and  the  hole  filled  with  cement  concrete  to  the  level 
of  the  old  asphalt.  No  repairs  have  been  made  on  the  general  sur- 
face, and  it  presents  lots  of  cradle  holes,  which  should  have  been 
cut  out  and  relaid  as  soon  as  they  appeared  ;  then,  in  many  places 
the  gutter  is  all  worn  down  and  is  a  mass  of  wet,  pasty  substance, 
frequently  extending  out  in  patches  six  or  eight  feet  from  sidewalk, 
thus  destroying  the  quality  of  the  surface.  It  is  this  kind  of  care- 
lessness in  regard  to  asphalt  (or  any  other  pavement)  which  brings 
it  in  disrepute,  and  really  increases  the  cost  of  an  already  costly 
pavement,  as  its  life  is  shortened  by  one-half  or  two-thirds  by  lack 
of  judicious  care  in  keeping  it  in  repair. 

The  avenue  is  sufficiently  wide  to  allow  of  all  of  one  side  of  the 
tracks  being  laid,  in  sections,  at  one  job  ;  then  the  other  side  for  the 
whole  length  of  street,  and  thus  the  new  surface  would,  when  put  in 
use,  receive  equal  wear,  which  does  not  happen  when  the  surface  is 
laid  in  sections  on  opposite  sides  of  street.  If  restrictions  are  put 
on  to  the  width  of  stone  pavement  each  side  of  track  by  horse  rail- 

*xv,  661. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  157 

road  company  or  by  the  cityr  any  reputable  firm  ought  to  refuse  to 
lay  their  pavement  in  such  unpromising  and  unfavorable  conditions, 
and  should  see  to  it  that  the  wheels  of  heavy  trucks  running  in  the 
groove  of  one  of  the  rails  should  not  extend  on  to  the  asphalt  sur- 
face, which  has  less  resistance  than  the  rail  surface,  and  will  there- 
fore be  quickly  destroyed  by  this  constant  wear  in  the  same  rut. 

Y.  D.  S. 

RENEWALS    OF    SHEET    ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.* 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Civil  Engineer's  Club  of  Cleveland,  April 
10,  1888,  Captain  D.  Torrey,  of  New  York,  read  a  paper  in  favor  of 
sheet  or  asphalt  pavements  compared  with  stone.  The  following 
discussion  took  place,  as  reported  in  the  Journal  of  the  Association 
of  Engineering  Societies  : 

Durability  —  Repairs.  —  Mr.  Morse  said  that  sheet  pavements 
were  fine  pavements  if  they  could  be  made  to  last,  but  that  the  cost 
of  keeping  them  in  repair  was  very  great. 

Mr.  Richardson  asked  if  information  could  not  be  obtained 
from  London,  Paris,  Washington  and  other  cities  with  regard  to  the 
durability  of  these  pavements  and  cost  of  repair. 

Captain  Torrey  stated  that  on  some  of  the  streets  of  London 
that  ran  from  ten  to  six  times  the  tonnage  per  foot  of  width  of  Supe- 
rior Street  in  Cleveland,  the  sheet  pavement  had  been  found  econo- 
mical. Leadenhall  Street,  in  London,  has  never  been  renewed,  but 
repairs  have  been  made.  The  oldest  pavement  of  this  kind  in 
America  has  been  in  use  twelve  years.  The  asphalt,  apparently,  is 
not  worn  at  all. 

Mr.  Richardson  said  that  he  had  been  informed  that  in  Paris 
small  depressions  were  at  once  filled  up.  They  were  not  allowed  to 
grow  large. 

Mr.  Baker  asked  whether  repairs  were  made  in  these  London 
pavements  by  the  contractors  or  by  the  municipal  authorities. 

Captain  Torrey  said  that  the  repairs  were  sometimes  made  by 
the  authorities  and  that  sometimes  the  contractors  offered  to  keep 
the  pavements  in  repair  for  a  term  of  years.  In  Washington  repairs 
are  made  twice  a  year,  spring  and  fall.  The  city  of  Washington 
makes  a  contract  for  repair  twice  a  year  for  a  five  years'  guarantee. 
It  costs  thirty-three  and  a-third  cents  per  foot  —  three  dollars  per 
yard. 

Mr.  Morse  asked  how  much  it  would  cost  for  a  guarantee  of 
ten  years. 

Captain  Torrey  said  that  after  five  years  the  contractors  would 
agree  to  repair  for  ten  cents  a  yard  for  a  long  term  of  years.  That 

*xix,  22. 


!tj8  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

includes  renewals.  The  pavement  never  wears  out.  A  pavement 
that  has  been  down  twelve  years  is  said  to  be  good  for' twelve  years 
yet.  A  record  taken  from  Fifteenth  Street,  in  front  of  the  Treasury 
Building,  showed  the  daily  average  of  vehicle  tonnage  to  be  66  tons 
per  square  foot.  The  tonnage  on  Pennsylvania  Avenue  must  be 
between  40  and  50  tons  per  day.  The  tables  will  show  that  there  is 
little  traffic  on  the  streets  of  Cleveland  except  with  light-weight 
vehicles. 

Mr.  Whitelaw  asked  if  new  covering  could  be  put  on  old  asphalt 
pavements. 

Captain  Torrey  said  that  he  had  never  seen  this  done,  but  that 
the  asphalt  can  be  easily  separated  or  peeled  off  from  the  concrete. 
If  any  one  could  discover  a  way  of  warming  it  up  without  burning 
so  as  to  separate,  it  might  be  used  again. 

Mr.  Whitelaw  said  that  he  supposed  that  when  the  asphalt  was 
entirely  worn  out,  the  surface  might  be  entirely  renewed. 

Mr.  Morse  said  that  it  had  been  stated  that  the  pavement 
between  Erie  and  Perry  Street  was  much  worn.  It  was  not  so  much 
worn,  but  it  was  uneven  in  consequence  of  being  taken  up  to  lay 
water-pipes. 

Mr.  Richardson  stated  that  the  St.  Paul's  Church  people  pro- 
tested against  the  asphalt  pavement  being  taken  up  and  stone  laid. 

A  Voice  :  There  is  75  per  cent,  of  coal  tar  in  that  pavement  in 
front  of  St.  Paul's  Church. 

Mr.  Morse  said  that  in  some  of  the  light  traffic  streets  a  stone 
pavement  would  last  fifty  years.  He  did  not  know  any  sheet  pave- 
ment that  would  last  half  that  time. 

Mr.  Whitelaw  said  that  River  Street  was  the  first  street  laid 
with  Medina  stone.  It  was  laid  in  1857,  and  he  thought  the  stone 
would  be  good  to  take  up  and  lay  again. 

Mr.  N.  B.  Wood  said  that  in  this  discussion  no  account  had 
been  taken  of  the  loss  of  life  of  horses  and  destruction  of  vehicles. 
In  considering  the  question  of  economy  of  pavement  that  would  last 
fifty  years,  it  should  be  asked  how  many  horses  has  it  killed  and 
how  many  vehicles  has  it  worn  out  ? 

Mr.  Morse  said  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  answer  that  question 
correctly. 

A  Voice  :  Would  Captain  Torrey  give  as  nearly  as  he  can  the 
amount  of  tonnage  carried  per  square  foot  per  day  by  the  oldest 
Trinidad  asphalt  pavement  and  compare  that  with  the  tonnage  of 
the  viaduct  ? 

Captain  Torrey  said  that  a  street  paved  with  asphalt  in  Phila- 
delphia carries  142  tons  per  square  foot  per  day  ;  that  is,  about  three 
and  a  half  times  the  tonnage  of  Superior  Street  and  about  four  times 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  159 

• 

that  of  the  viaduct.  The  pavement  of  Superior  Street  viaduct  will 
have  to  be  taken  up  and  reset  before  it  has  carried  the  amount  of 
the  tonnage  of  the  street  in  Philadelphia. 

Mr.  Morse  said  that  the  stone  pavement  on  the  viaduct  was 
laid  in  the  fall.  It  was  expected  that  it  would  settle,  and  it  has 
settled. 

A  Voice:  I  disagree  with  Mr.  Morse  with  regard  to  the 
inequalities  of  the  pavement  over  the  viaduct  being  due  to  settle- 
ment. They  are  caused  by  the  horses'  hoofs  chipping  off  the  edges 
of  the  blocks. 

Mr.  Morse  said  that  the  gentleman  was  a  little  mistaken. 
Blocks  of  stone  in  the  railroad  track  were  worn  turtle-back,  but 
in  other  places  the  pavement  was  worn  smooth. 

Mr.  Baker  said  that  the  convenience  of  persons  who  were  taxed 
on  the  abutting  property  should  be  considered. 

A  member  stated  that  he  had  recently  interviewed  a  number  of 
people  in  Buffalo  and  found  that  the  persons  who  most  wanted  the 
Trinidad  asphalt  pavement  were  those  who  had  to  pay  for  it.  They 
desired  to  have  it  on  account  of  its  beneficial  effect  on  their  property. 

Mr.  Wood  said  that  it  was  claimed  for  the  Nicholson  pavement 
that  it  increased  the  value  of  property,  but  people  thought  differently 
when  it  had  to  be  renewed. 

Captain  Torrey  said  that  a  great  deal  of  wood  pavement  was  in 
use  in  London  and  Paris.  In  Paris  a  large  amount  of  work  has 
been  done,  and  a  man  has  made  a  contract  to  take  care  of  the  pave- 
ment for  twenty  years.  Sometimes  as  high  as  a  dollar  per  square 
yard  is  paid.  In  London  wooden  pavements  are  put  down  and 
renewed  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  be  a  little  uneven.  To  keep 
asphalt  pavement  perfectly  clean  and  in  good  repair  for  ever  would 
cost  about  40  cents  per  foot  of  property.  On  an  average  street 
in  Cleveland  it  should  cost  a  man  who  lives  on  a  40-foot  lot  about 
$16  per  year. 

Mr.  Morse  said  that  if  all  the  streets  in  the  city  were  paved  and 
were  all  paid  for  out  of  the  general  fund  it  would  be  well,  but  the 
pavement  was  a  tax  on  the  adjoining  property. 

Mr.  Strong  said  that  he  would  guarantee  the  pavement  on 
Wilson  Avenue  for  fifty  years.  Any  depressions  there  have  been 
caused  by  the  taking  up  of  sewers,  etc. 

Captain  Torrey  said  that  there  was  no  such  trouble  with 
asphalt.  It  could  be  taken  up  and  relaid  so  that  there  would  be  no 
mark  on  the  street.  Like  a  patch  on  plaster,  it  can  be  put  on  so 
that  the  place  cannot  be  discovered. 


l6o  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS   INJURED    BY    ESCAPING    GAS.* 

In  a  recent  issue  of  the  Centralblatt  der  Bauverwaltung  atten- 
tion is  directed  to  the  fact,  observed  in  some  of  the  streets  of  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  Germany,  that  the  asphalt  pavement  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  of  large  gas  mains  is  rapidly  destroyed  by 
escaping  gas,  deep  cracks  being  formed.  This  has  been  found  to 
be  particularly  marked  at  places  where  the  underlying  layer  of  beton 
was  imperfect,  due  to  interruption  of  the  work  over  night  while  lay- 
ing. If  this  is  true,  it  furnishes  an  additional  reason  for  preventing 
that  escape  of  gas  from  the  mains  in  New  York  City  which 
has  already  given  so  much  trouble  by  explosions  in  subways  and 
sewers. 

ASPHALT    PAVEMENT    INJURED    BY   ESCAPING    GAS.f 

IN  the  issue  of  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record 'of  October 
5,  1889,  a  brief  reference  was  made  to  the  injury  done  to  asphalt 
pavements  in  some  of  the  streets  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Ger- 
many, by  gas  escaping  from  street  mains.  The  Centralblatt  der 
Bauverwaltung  of  recent  date  gives  further  particulars  bearing  on 
the  subject. 

In  removing  the  asphalt  covering  at  one  of  the  more  seriously 
damaged  places  it  was  found  that  the  underlying  bed  of  beton  had 
cracked  in  the  direction  of  one  of  the  mains  of  the  Frankfort  Gas 
Company.  Breaking  through  the  layer  of  beton,  it  was  further  dis- 
covered that  the  crack  extended  almost  vertically  clear  through  the 
bed,  and  contained  a  sticky  substance  resembling  tar.  If  further 
evidence  had  been  wanted  that  the  damage  was  due  to  gas,  it  would 
have  been  furnished  by  the  exceedingly  offensive  smell  of  gas  which 
was  encountered.  Continuing  the  excavation  and  laying  bare  the 
gas  mains,  a  break  in  the  pipe  was  found  After  having  made  the 
necessary  repairs,  and  before  again  putting  down  the  beton  and 
pavement  proper,  iron  ventilating  pipes  were  provided  for  which 
extended  to  the  street  surface  and  afforded  a  convenient  means  of 
escape  for  accumulations  of  gas.  The  results  attending  this  change 
proved  eminently  satisfactory,  the  new  asphalt  covering  having  thus 
far  remained  in  excellent  condition.  The  crack  in  the  layer  of 
beton  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  asphalt  pavement  and  the 
beton  bed  originally  terminated  at  the  place  where  the  crack  was 
found,  and  in  extending  it  subsequently,  the  union  of  the  old  and 
new  layers  of  beton  was  imperfect. 

It  is  probable  that  the  whole  matter  would  thus  have  been  con- 
sidered as  satisfactorily  disposed  of  had  not  the  possibility  of  damage 
to  asphalt  paving  from  illuminating  gas  been  seriously  questioned 

*  xx.  258.    fxxi,  34. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  l6l 

by  several  authorities.  To  set  the  matter  at  rest  two  specimens  of 
the  asphalt  covering  used,  one  damaged  as  found  and  the  other  in 
good  condition,  were  sent  to  the  Chemical  Pharmaceutical  Institute, 
at  Marburg,  for  examination.  In  the  report  which  was  submitted  it 
was  pointed  out  that  past  experience  did  not  sustain  the  view  that 
illuminating  gas  was  responsible  for  the  trouble.  As  a  matter  of 
fact  asphalt-coated  pipes  were  used  at  Paris  for  gas  mains.  An  ex- 
perimental investigation  was  therefore  instituted.  Pieces  of  the 
undamaged  asphalt  the  size  of  nuts  were  placed  in  a  large  glass  tube, 
and  the  latter  was  connected  with  a  gas-pipe  allowing  a  current  of 
gas  to  pass  through  it.  After  having  been  thus  subjected  to  the 
action  of  the  gas  for  eight  days  the  asphalt  specimens  were  taken 
out  and  found  to  have  become  soft,  readily  crumbling  to  pieces 
under  the  pressure  of  the  hand.  Similar  specimens  exposed  to  the 
gas  regained  their  original  condition  after  several  weeks'  exposure 
to  the  air.  Under  the  circumstances  there  seemed  to  be  little  ques- 
tion that  the  damage  to  the  Frankfort  pavement  was  due  to  gas. 
The  explanation  offered  is  that  a  portion  of  the  carburetted  hydro- 
gen of  the  illuminating  gas  is  absorbed  by  parts  of  the  asphalt,  de- 
stroying cohesion.  This  view  is  sustained  by  the  observation  that 
the  asphalt  regains  its  original  condition  after  exposure  for  a  time 
to  the  atmosphere. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  conclusion  that  similar  destructive 
action  of  illuminating  gas  on  asphalt  pavement  was  observed  several 
years  ago  at  Leipsic.  The  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Department  of 
Canals  and  Streets,  at  Copenhagen,  moreover,  recalls  the  fact  that, 
while  pursuing  a  course  of  studies  at  Paris  fifteen  years  ago,  attention 
was  drawn  by  one  of  the  lecturers  to  the  great  importance  of  pro- 
tecting asphalt  street  pavments  from  attacks  of  illuminating  gas. 

SLIPPERINESS  OF  PAVEMENTS.* 

The  Horse  Accident  Preventive  Society,  of  London,  published 
some  statistics  to  show  the  slipperiness  of  asphalt  pavements  with  a 
view  to  condemning  their  use  and  recommending  wood  as  preferable. 
In  reply  to  this  the  London  Times  publishes  a  letter  from  William 
A.  Vivian,  the  Secretary  of  the  French  Asphalt  Company,  in  which 
the  following  interesting  points  are  made.  He  says  : 

The  deputation  appears  to  have  based  its  arguments  chiefly  on  some 
statistics  as  to  the  relative  slipperiness  of  asphalt,  wood,  and  granite  pave- 
ments, according  to  which  asphalt  is  made  to  appear  the  most  cruel  and 
dangerous  to  horses.  But  it  was  not  pointed  out  that  these  statistics  were 
compiled  some  fifteen  years  ago,  at  a  time  when  asphalt  was  comparatively  a 
new  thing  and  its  proper  treatment  very  insufficiently  understood.  It  was 
not  then  recognized  that  asphalt  requires  to  be  constantly  and  thoroughly 
cleansed  in  order  to  do  justice  to  itself. 

*xxi,  116. 


162  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

In  the  years  which  have  passed  between  1874  and  1889  great  improve- 
ments have  been  made  in  this  direction,  so  much  so  that  the  statistics  taken 
in  the  former  year  are  now  the  very  reverse  of  the  truth.  Granite  sets  con- 
stitute without  a  doubt  the  most  slippery  form  of  pavement,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  noisiest  and  the  heaviest.  It  is,  however,  unfortunately  true  that 
much  yet  remains  to  be  done  to  our  asphalt  roadways  before  they  can  be 
considered  as  really  representative  of  asphalt — that  is,  such  asphalt  as  is  to 
be  seen  in  Paris  and  Berlin,  where  it  is  flushed  with  water  each  night,  and 
in  consequence  is  kept  sweet,  clean  and  safe. 

London  has  to  thank  the  ill-advised  parsimony  and  indifference  of  its 
vestries  for  the  condition  of  its  roadways.  The  fault  lies  with  the  dirt  and 
not  with  the  asphalt.  As  an  instance  of  the  half-and-half  way  in  which 
things  are  done,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  street  orderly  boys  leave  their 
work  at  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  while  the  traffic  and  consequent  dis- 
semination of  refuse  continue  practically  unabated  until  a  much  later 
hour. 

Colonel  Colville  did  not  hesitate  to  boldly  denounce  asphalt  as  the  very 
worst  species  of  pavement  in  existence.  His  opinion  is  chiefly  remarkable 
as  being  quite  the  reverse  of  that  held  by  those  who  are  best  competent  to 
pass  judgment  on  the  matter.  Berlin  is  not  a  city  which  would  be  content, 
not  merely  to  put  up  with,  but  to  continually  extend  the  worst  paving  in 
existence.  Yet  nearly  100,000  square  yards  of  new  asphalt  are  laid  annually 
in  Berlin,  and  the  authorities,  supported  by  the  public,  do  not  mean  to  rest 
till  the  whole  of  their  streets  are  asphalted.  Not  long  since  a  petition  was 
presented,  signed  by  more  than  1,500  principal  horse  owners,  asking  for  an 
extension  of  the  asphalt,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  better  suited  to  their 
animals  than  any  other  known  description  of  paving.  Recent  statistics, 
very  carefully  compiled,  show  that  whereas  in  1885  4,403  horses  fell  on 
398,000  square  yards  of  asphalt  pavement,  the  number  was  reduced  in  1887 
to  2,456,  while  the  area  had  increased  to  485,000  square  yards.  The  horses 
and  their  drivers  had  learned  to  understand  the  asphalt,  and  the  authorities 
had  learned  how  to  keep  it  in  a  properly  cleansed  condition.  The  improve- 
ment has  gone  on  since  1887,  and  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  expect  that  street 
accidents  in  Berlin  will  soon  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  What  is  possible 
in  Berlin  and  other  large  towns  should  surely  be  possible  in  London. 

It  may  be  noted,  in  conclusion,  that  the  deputationists  who  so  warmly 
advocated  the  use  of  wood  pavement  while  condemning  asphalt,  are  not 
reported  to  have  made  any  reference  to  the  relative  hygienic  qualities  of 
the  two  materials.  The  smell  arising  from  the  roadway  of  Piccadilly  on  a 
hot  summer  afternoon  should  of  itself  suffice  to  prevent  the  further  use  of 
this  most  unhealthy  substance  in  public  thoroughfares  where  the  traffic  is 
at  all  considerable.  Asphalt,  with  its  smooth,  impermeable  surface,  may 
at  least  claim  to  be  the  most  wholesome  covering  for  our  streets  as  yet 
introduced. 

ASPHALT    AND    COAL    TAR.* 

Coal-Tar  Pitch. — The  confusion  of  mind  respecting  these  is 
first  mentioned,  and  then  the  defects  of  the  latter  are  pointed  out. 
These  consist  in  the  fact,  that  if  the  boiling  is  continued  long 
enough  to  remove  the  volatile  matters,  the  material  becomes  brittle 

*  From  a  Report  to  the  Common  Council  of  Topeka,  Kan.     xv,  375. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  163 

and  soon  crumbles  after  being  laid  ;  while  if  the  volatile  portions 
are  not  removed,  the  pavement  is  too  soft  in  hot  weather.  "  Coal-tar 
softens  at  115°  Fahr.,  and  is  very  brittle  at  the  freezing  point ;  while 
true  bitumen  is  tough  at  20°  Fahr.,  and  will  not  soften  at  170°  Fahr." 
General  Gillmore  and  Captain  Greene  reported  against  the  use  of 
coal-tar  for  pavement,  on  the  ground  of  the  gradual  oxidation  of  the 
cementing  substance,  and  the  disintegration  that  is  sure  to  follow. 
Other  authorities  say  that  when  this  occurs,  the  only  remedy  is  to 
patch  them,  and  this  is  never  satisfactory. 

Other  cities  give  testimony  much  like  the  above.  General  M. 
C.  Meigs  writes  to  a  similar  committee  from  Philadelphia  :  "  The 
average  annual  cost  of  coal-tar  pavements  in  Washington  is  about 
six  times  as  much  as  that  of  good  asphalt  pavements." 

Asphalt  Pavement  in  Various  Cities. — The  Engineer  Commis- 
sioner of  Washington,  in  1885,  reports  asphalt  as  the  standard  pave- 
ment for  seven  years  past. 

Buffalo  laid  over  16  miles  between  1882  and  1886,  and  is  laying 
many  miles  more,  and  it  has  given  the  highest  satisfaction. 

At  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  they  are  now  substituting  it  for  the  lime- 
stone macadam,  which  has  failed.  The  specification  there  used  is 
the  same  as  that  of  Washington.  After  grading  the  street,  a 
layer  of  concrete  six  inches  thick  is  laid  down,  and  when  fully  set  a 
"  cushion  coat "  of  asphalt-mastic  ^-inch  thick  is  spread.  This  is 
followed  by  another  layer  2^  inches  thick,  containing  60  to  70  per 
cent,  of  fine  sand,  with  a  small  percentage  of  limestone  dust. 

Streets  with  grades  of  4  to  5  per  cent,  have  been  laid,  but  it  is 
not  considered  good  practice  on  account  of  slipping  of  horses  in  wet 
or  icy  weather. 

For  this  reason  in  Kansas  City,  where  the  grades  are  mostly 
high,  the  standard  pavements  are  stone  blocks  of  granite  or  Colorado 
sandstone  and  cedar  blocks  on  a  concrete  base. 

For  the  same  reason  in  Cincinnati  the  Board  of  Public  Works 
recommend  granite  blocks  on  all  streets  of  over  2\  per  cent,  grade, 
and  asphalt-mastic  on  streets  of  less  grade. 

In  Omaha,  where  the  climate  in  winter  is  especially  severe,  this 
pavement  has  borne  the  test  for  four  years  thoroughly  well.  There 
are  now  over  seven  miles  of  it  in  use  there,  on  business  and  semi- 
business  streets,  and  it  is  giving  entire  satisfaction. 

ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS    AFFECTING    VALUE    OF    PROPERTY.* 

Some  ten  or  twelve  years  ago  an  effort  was  made  to  pave  Fifth 
Avenue  with  the  bituminous  pavement  that  wore  so  well  in  front  of 
the  Worth  Monument,  until  it  was  replaced  in  the  fall  of  1879  by 

*  Ed.  xiv,  463. 


164  ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

one  of  an  inferior  description ;  but  the  property-owners  on  the 
avenue,  with  great  unanimity,  petitioned  the  Legislature  against  the 
projected  improvement,  asserting  that  it  contained  a  job,  and 
charged  complicity  between  the  projectors  and  the  Health  Depart- 
ment that  endorsed  the  plan.  Their  opposition  was  effective,  and 
since  that  time  they  have  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  the  worst  pave- 
ment in  the  city,  and  probably  the  worst  in  any  city  of  a  million 
inhabitants  in  the  world. 

Finally,  when  after  trials  and  tribulations  the  citizens  of  that 
thoroughfare  have  got  a  noisy  and  dirty  pavement,  which  in  due 
time  will  be  broken  up  for  the  laying  of  steam,  gas  and  electric-wire 
pipes,  they  may  well  look  to  the  example  of  Cincinnati  and  see  how 
blind  and  short-sighted  they  were  ten  years  ago,  when  they  so  per- 
sistently and  successfully  opposed  the  laying  of  the  asphalt  pave- 
ment referred  to.  If  not  comforting  for  them  to  know,  it  may  be 
valuable  to  other  citizens  to  learn  that  Cincinnati,  which  is  now 
spending  about  four  million  dollars  in  putting  down  decent  pave- 
ments, about  three  months  ago  completed  the  pavement  of  Race 
Street  with  asphalt.  A  gentleman  residing  on  the  street  informs  us 
that  immediately  after  the  completion  of  this  pavement  the  wheel 
traffic  from  the  city  was  apparently  concentrated  there  ;  that  there 
is  no  noise,  no  dust,  and  every  night  the  street  is  thoroughly  cleaned. 
Moreover,  property  has  been  sold  at  an  advance  of  33^  per  cent, 
over  any  figures  heretofore  obtainable,  and  with  the  prospect  of  still 
higher  prices. 

This  enhancement  of  the  value  of  property  along  the  line  of  a 
well  paved  street  is  only  a  repetition  of  the  experience  of  every  city 
that  has  laid  down  and  maintained  decent  pavements. 

In  thus  endorsing  an  asphalt  pavement  we  do  not  wish  to  be 
understood  as  recommending  it  for  every  street  and  under  all  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  though  we  would  like  to  have  seen  it  on  Fifth 
Avenue,  yet  we  admit  that  there  are  one  or  two  spots  on  that 
avenue  where  the  grade  would  demand  a  different  pavement.  But 
we  have  no  hesitation  in  predicting  that  if  any  of  the  cross-town 
streets  in  the  upper  part  of  the  city  should  secure  a  properly  laid 
asphalt  pavement  from  river  to  river,  property  would  be  enhanced 
in  value,  as  was  the  case  in  Cincinnati. 

ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS  IN  NEW  YORK  AT  COST    OF  PROPERTY  OWNERS.* 

We  have  frequently  urged  the  trial  of  asphalt  pavements  prop- 
erly put  down  on  some  of  the  residential  streets  of  New  York,  point- 
ing out  the  advantages  of  this  noiseless  and  cleanly  pavement  as 
recorded  in  the  experience  of  other  cities.  It  was  with  considerable 
satisfaction,  therefore,  that  we  noticed  in  a  recent  ride  on  the  west 

*  Ed.  xvii,  334. 


ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  165 

side  in  this  city,  where  so  much  building  has  been  in  progress,  that 
on  West  End  Avenue  and  Seventy-second  Street  the  enterprising 
property  owners  had  contracted  with  a  responsible  company  who 
had  laid  this  pavement.  On  inquiry  we  learned  that  some  thirty 
different  owners  have  co-operated  in  this  matter,  Messrs.  W.  E.  D. 
Stokes  and  W.  J.  Merrill,  who  own  a  number  of  buildings  in  the 
locality,  having  been  the  active  promoters  of  the  movement. 

The  excellent  appearance  of  the  street  will  doubtless  enhance 
the  value  of  their  houses  more  than  it  has  cost  the  owners.  We  hope 
the  fact  may  speedily  be  demonstrated  so  that  the  example  they 
have  set  may  be  followed  elsewhere. 

ASPHALT    PAVEMENT    FOR    NEW    YORK'S    BOULEVARD.* 

We  had  occasion,  last  May,  to  note  with  approval  that  certain 
property  owners  on  the  west  side  of  the  upper  part  of  New  York 
City  had  laid  some  asphalt  pavement  at  their  own  expense,  with  a 
view  to  improving  the  value  of  their  neighboring  real  estate,  and 
expressed  the  hope  that  the  result  would  justify  their  expectations. 
It  would  seem  to  have  done  so,  for  they  now  wish  to  have  the  city 
do  something  more  in  the  same  line,  and  to  that  end  W.  E.  D. 
Stokes,  who  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  first  movement,  has  pre- 
pared a  bill,  which  has  been  introduced  in  the  Legislature  by  Mr. 
Connolly,  to  provide  for  laying  an  asphalt  pavement  on  the  Boule- 
vard. Francis  M.  Jencks,  Charles  T.  Barney,  Jacob  Lawson,  David 
B.  Ogden,  the  members  of  the  West  End  Protective  Association,  and 
other  west  side  property  owners  are  interested  with  Mr.  Stokes  in 
promoting  this  bill,  which  has  been  so  drawn  that  any  asphalt  paving 
company  can  contract  for  work  under  it  ;  and  the  charge  that  the 
whole  thing  is  a  job  for  the  benefit  of  some  particular  paving  inter- 
est seems,  therefore,  to  be  utterly  without  foundation.  It  is  much 
more  likely  that  the  opposition  to  this  measure  proceeds  from  those 
who  are  interested  in  some  description  of  stone  pavement.  The 
Boulevard  having  been  already  macadamized,  can  be  prepared  at 
very  little  expense  to  receive  the  asphalt,  and  we  trust  nothing  will 
interfere  to  prevent  the  passage  of  the  bill  and  the  speedy  com- 
mencement of  the  work. 

ASPHALT     BLOCKS.f 

Asphalt  Blocks,  in  size  4x5x12  inches,  composed  of  genuine 
asphalt  and  broken  stone  compacted  by  hydraulic  pressure,  have  in 
some  places  failed  rapidly.  In  other  places  they  are  approved  for 
light  traffic. 

The  patentees  do  not  consider  them  suited  for  anything  else,  and 
also  consider  it  essential  that  they  be  made  at  or  near  the  place  used. 

They  are  therefore  reported  against. 

*Ed.  xix,  118.  f From  a  Report  to  Common  Council  of  Topeka,  Kan.,  xv,  375. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


BRICK  PAVEMENTS. 

BRICK    STREET    PAVEMENTS.* 

Clay. — As  towns  grow  into  cities,  and  their  street  traffic  in- 
creases, pavements  become  a  necessity. 

In  parts  of  Illinois,  where  timber  is  scarce  and  stone  and  gravel 
almost  wanting,  hard-burnt  bricks  have  been  used  for  paving,  and 
the  cheapness  of  the  material  has  commended  its  use  to  the  people. 

In  Bloomington,  111.,  fifteen  )rears  ago,  a  courtway  was  paved 
with  bricks  as  an  experiment,  and  this  courtway,  exceptional  for  a 
first  experiment,  is  still  in  a  fair  condition,  after  scarcely  any  repairs. 

Bricks  fit  for  paving  are  so  different  from  common  bricks,  that 
we  have  thought  some  facts  about  the  former  might  be  interesting. 

Clay,  which  will  make  good  paving  bricks,  should  be  able,  with- 
out fusing,  to  withstand  a  sufficient  degree  of  heat,  and  for  a  long 
enough  time  to  render  the  bricks  hard  and  impervious  to  water. 
Yet,  while  the  value  of  a  clay  fqr  paving  brick  depends  largely  upon 
its  refractory  nature,  fluxing  agents,  in  proportions  yet  undetermined, 
are  necessary  to  render  the  bricks  homogeneous  and  tenacious. 

Fire  clays  are  generally  hydrated  silicates  of  alumina.  Potash, 
soda,  lime,  magnesia,  iron  and  other  elements  are  sometimes  present 
in  small  quantities,  and  render  the  clay  less  refractory  the  greater 
the  quantity  of  them  present.  When  6  to  10  per  cent,  is  found  the 
clay  will  generally  melt.  When  the  clay  is  silicious,  3  to  4  per  cent, 
makes  it  fusible.  When  it  is  aluminous,  6  to  7  per  cent,  of  oxide  of 
iron  does  not  render  it  non-refractory,  because  aluminites  are 
mostly  of  a  refractory  nature. 

Lime  alone  is  completely  infusible  ;  but  in  very  small  quantities 
in  clay,  it  makes  a  brick  fusible  at  high  temperatures.  It  is  espec- 
ially to  be  avoided  in  clays  for  paving-bricks,  because  the  heat  of 
burning  reduces  the  carbonate  to  caustic  lime,  which  in  the  pave- 
ments will  absorb  moisture  and  cause  disintegration  of  the  brick. 

Magnesia  in  small  quantities  is  said  by  Egleston  to  make  clay 
fusible. 

The  alkalies,  from  i  to  3  per  cent.,  make  clay  fusible. 

*xxi,  23.  A  paper  read  by  Charles  E.  Green,  before  the  Tenth  Annual 
Convention  of  the  Michigan  Engineering  Society,  and  published  in  the 
Michigan  Engineers'  Annual  for  1889. 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  167 

The  change  of  color  in  burning  is  due  to  iron,  or  to  a  small  per- 
centage of  bituminous  material.  Iron,  beyond  6  to  10  per  cent.,  if 
the  clay  is  silicious,  usually  renders  it  fusible. 

Silica  and  alumina  constitute  the  refractory  parts,  and  the  im- 
purities the  fluxing  part. 

Silica  is  infusible  alone,  except  at  the  highest  temperatures  of 
the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe.  It  possesses  no  binding  property,  and 
a  clay  having  an  excess  of  it  is  rough  and  lacking  in  plasticity  and 
tenacity,  thus  rendering  the  bricks  weak. 

Alumina  is  highly  refractory  and  is  binding.  When  combined 
with  iron  or  other  bases  alone,  it  makes  infusible  aluminites  ;  but 
with  silica  present,  it  fuses  more  or  less  readily. 

The  plasticity  of  clay  is  due  to  the  fineness  of  the  particles,  to 
the  presence  of  alumina,  and  to  the  water  of  combination,  which  may 
be  driven  off  at  a  red  heat,  the  clay  losing  its  power  of  combining 
with  water. 

The  refractory  nature  of  a  clay  is  then  due  to  the  presence  of 
alumina  and  silica  in  excess,  and  to  the  absence  of  potash,  soda,  lime, 
magnesia  and  iron. 

The  characteristics  of  all  fine  clays  may  be  said  to  be,  that  they 
do  not  effervesce  with  acids :  that  they  make  a  paste  with  water, 
which  paste  can  be  drawn  out  without  breaking,  and  is  very  plastic ; 
that  when  dry  they  are  solid,  and  break  into  scales  when  struck ; 
have  a  soapy  feeling,  are  easily  scratched  or  polished,  can  be  cut  into 
long  ribbons  with  a  knife,  and  appear  somewhat  like  horn. 

The  commercial  test  is  the  only  sure  way  of  ascertaining  the 
value  of  a  clay. 

Some  clays  which  we  will  mention  have  been  used  more  or  less 
successfully  in  making  a  paving  material. 

"Mingo"  Fire-Clay,  Haydenville,  Ohio. — The  clay  from  which 
the  Hayden  patent  Paving  Block  (of  which  a  sample  is  submitted)  is 
made,  has  nearly  the  compactness  and  density  of  fine  grained  sand- 
stone, and  yet  is  semi-plastic.  It  can  be  characterized  neither  as  a 
hard  nor  as  a  plastic  clay.  Nitro-glycerine  is  used  in  mining  it ;  yet, 
while  apparently  very  hard,  it  is  readily  reduced  to  powder  in  the 
dry  pan  under  heavy  rollers.  The  clay  when  ground  is  excellent  for 
laying  fire-bricks,  mixing  easily,  working  smoothly,  and  resisting 
great  heat. 

The  paving  block  in  burning  is  subjected  for  ten  days  to  2,000° 
Fahr.  This  paving  block  is  square  in  plan,  5  J  inches  on  a  side,  and 
4j  inches  deep,  hollow  below  to  facilitate  burning  and  save  material, 
and  having  a  flat  upper  surface  broken  by  indentations  intended  to 
provide  a  firmer  foot-hold  for  horses.  These  indentations,  however 
seem  to  be  of  little  permanent  value,  as  under  heavy  traffic  they  are 


i68 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS. 


soon  obliterated.  The  blocks  are  salt-glazed.  The  outer  top  edges 
are  slightly  beveled,  to  admit  readily  to  filling  of  sand,  pitch  or  other 
material  in  the  joints  after  laying.  One  thousand  blocks  will  lay  26 
square  yards,  at  50  cents  per  hundred,  or  $1.92  per  square  yard. 
The  sidewalks  are  i-J  inches  thick  and  top  2  inches.  The  endurance 
of  the  block  is  therefore  limited  to  the  wear  of  the  top.  A  block 
weighs  about  9^  pounds,  giving  about  360  pounds  to  the  square  yard. 
An  analysis  of  this  clay,  by  Professor  E.  M.  Reed,  is  subjoined, 
and  a  comparison  is  made  with  the  well-known  Stourbridge  clay  of 
England. 

ANALYSIS    OF    CLAY. 


Mingo  Fire-Clay, 
Haydenville,  Ohio. 
Per  cent. 

Stourbridge 
Fire-Clay. 
Per  cent. 

Silica                

72.24. 

7-3    82 

Alumina     

16.87 

«  88 

Iron     

0.16 

2    0=; 

Lime 

o  50 

trace 

Magnesia  

trace. 

trace. 

Alkali        .           

I    OQ 

O   QO 

Water                   

5  -44 

6  4.^ 

Total               

IOO.OO 

100  oo 

Paving  Brick  Clay,  Virden,  III. — This  clay  is  found  in  a  bed  25 
feet  thick,  lying  just  beneath  a  stratum  of  slate,  and  275  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  compact,  with  a  distinct  cylindrical 
cleavage,  of  a  light  steel-gray  color,  and  emits,  when  first  mined,  a 
characteristic  odor  resembling  that  of  slate.  Although  it  is  blasted 
out,  it  has  only  the  hardness  of  soft  slate,  and  can  be  reduced  to  an 
extremely  fine  powder  free  from  grit.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
2.5595.  A  piece  kept  at  a  white  heat  in  a  hard  coal  fire  for  twelve 
hours  was  not  disintegrated,  and  concentrated  nitric  acid  failed  to 
produce  effervescence. 

It  is  reduced  to  powder  by  being  first  passed  through  a  Blake 
crusher,  then  finished  in  a  dry  pan  crusher.  The  process  is  imper- 
fect, as  particles  of  uncrushed  clay  weighing  as  much  as  50  milli- 
grams have  been  taken  from  a  green  brick.  These  particles  had 
not  apparently  been  affected  by  the  water  used  for  tempering,  and 
they  remain  intact  through  the  process  of  burning,  being  easily  dis- 
cerned in  a  burned  brick,  and  rendering  it  heterogeneous.  When 
tempered  with  water,  the  clay  becomes  plastic,  tenacious  and  firm, 
being  readily  formed  into  different  shapes.  A  sample  is  here  sub- 
mitted. 

Clays  from  Bloomington,  III. — These  may  properly  be  called 
"  surface  clays,"  and  are  of  three  varieties. 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  169 

"  A  "  is  a  yellow,  aluminous  clay,  very  fine  and  plastic,  found 
three  feet  below  the  surface,  in  a  bed  12  feet  in  thickness.  It  is 
subjected  to  no  process  of  grinding  or  reduction,  being  simply 
tempered  in  a  vertical  pug-mill  directly  from  the  bank.  It  burns  to 
a  grayish-red  color. 

"  B  "  is  a  hard-pan  clay  just  beneath  the  "  A  "  layer,  and  from 
one  to  one  and  a-half  feet  thick.  Great  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
reducing  this  clay  to  an  impalpable  powder.  When  dug  and  ex- 
posed for  one  winter,  to  "weather,"  or  disintegrate,  very  good 
results  are  claimed  for  it.  But  when  this  clay  is  reduced  at  once, 
uncrushed  particles  occur  which  cause  unequal  shrinkage  in  the 
burned  brick,  leaving1  small  cavities  where,  in  the  pavement,  water 
may  accumulate  and  cause  disintegration  by  freezing.  Hard-pan 
clay  generally  burns  from  pink  to  cream  in  color. 

"  C  "  is  a  blue  clay  directly  beneath  the  hard-pan  clay,  and  has 
a  depth  of  from  one  to  six  feet.  It  is  plastic  or  semi-plastic,  fine,, 
firm  and  very  tenacious,  and  usually  burns  to  a  chalk  white.  In 
many  respects  it  is  similar  to  the  light  blue  fire  clay  used  for  fire  and 
paving  brick  at  Empire,  O. 

From  the  experience  of  the  best  manufacturers  of  paving  brickr 
we  are  led  to  conclude  that  fineness  of  grain  in  clay  is  most  essen- 
tial, and  where  that  property  is  found  in  a  plastic  clay,  provided  the 
clay  is  sufficiently  refractory,  care  only  is  needed  in  tempering  and 
burning  to  produce  good  results.  When  fine-grained  clay  has  a 
compact  and  hard  structure,  no  pains  should  be  spared  to  reduce  it, 
in  a  dry  state,  to  an  impalpable  powder. 

Where  the  clay  is  neither  dry  nor  fine,  but  of  desired  compo- 
sition, it  may  be  calcined  and  then  finely  ground.  This  may  appear 
a  trivial  matter,  yet,  if  two  samples  of  the  same  clay  are  ground,  the 
one  finely  and  the  other  coarsely,  the  latter  will  require  much  more 
heat  before  vitrifying  to  a  homogeneous  mass;  while  the  more  finely 
it  is  ground,  the  stronger  and  harder  the  bricks  will  become,  the 
better  they  will  stand  abrasion,  and  the  less  liable  will  they  be  to 
break. 

Manufacture  of  Brick. — The  great  diversity  in  the  clays  makes 
the  process  of  manufacture  a  difficult  problem,  for  the  experience 
gained  in  one  place  may  be  of  little  or  no  use  in  another. 

In  several  towns,  notably  Ottawa  and  Virden,  111,,  manufac- 
turers use  the  plant  commonly  employed  for  making  tile,  modified 
for  bricks.  At  Virden,  III.,  where  the  capacity  is  1,600  per  hour, 
the  process  is  in  substance  as  follows  : 

The  clay  hoisted  from  the  mine  is  delivered  from  tram-carts  to 
a  Blake  crusher,  and  then  finished  in  a  dry-pan  crusher.  It  is  then 
delivered  to  a  tempering  machine,  and  forced  from  the  latter  by  a 


1 70  BRICK    PAVEMENTS. 

screw  through  the  desired  mold,  whence  it  issues  in  one  continuous 
bar,  8£  inches  by  4^  inches  in  a  section.  It  runs  over  a  series  of 
rollers,  and  is  cut  up  by  wire  spaced  two  inches  apart,  in  a  hinged 
frame  worked  by  hand.  The  bricks  are  removed  on  tram-cars  to  a 
dry-house  or  shed,  and  left  until  sufficiently  dry.  They  are  then 
placed  in  down-draft  cylindrical  kilns  having  hemispherical  tops, 
and  burned  from  70  to  90  hours  with  bituminous  coal,  on  grates,  at 
intervals,  around  the  outside  base.  A  80  horse-power  engine 
suffices  for  this  plant.  The  heat  is  sufficient  to  melt  tin,  and  to 
cause  pieces  of  copper  to  run  together. 

"A"  and  "B,"  of  dimensions  8^x4^x2  inches,  are  burned  in 
the  same  kiln,  but  differ  in  color  and  quality.  "A"  is  dark, 
almost  black,  rings  more  and  appears  stronger  than  "  B,"  which 
is  a  light  red.  They  are  quoted  at  $8  per  thousand  free  on 
boards  cars. 

"  C  "  is  a  brick  from  the  same  clay,  and  made  in  the  same 
way,  but  intended  for  a  finished  brick  for  face  work  on  build- 
ings. 

At  Bloomington,  111.,  the  "  A  "  clay  is  simply  tempered  in  a 
vertical  pug-mill,  molded  into  bricks  by  hand,  dried  in  a  yard, 
racked  in  rectangular  stacks,  and  burned  for  from  96  to  120  hours 
with  wood  and  bituminous  coal  placed  in  the  usual  arches.  It  is  a 
grayish  red  in  color,  7x3^x2^-  inches,  quoted  at  $8.50  per  thousand 
at  the  yards,  or  furnished  in  sufficient  numbers  to  lay  two  courses, 
one  flat  and  the  other  on  edge,  for  $i.i2|-  per  square  yard. 
Bloomington  "B"  and  "  C,"  quoted  at  the  same  figures,  have 
about  the  same  dimensions.  All  have  a  sharp,  clear  ring  when 
struck. 

Bricks  are  made  at  Ottawa,  111.,  from  fire-clay  which  is  mined, 
and  from  common  surface  clay.  They  are  burned  some  50  hours 
with  bituminous  coal  in  kilns  similar  to  those  used  at  Virden.  When 
burned  the  interior  is  dark  gray  in  color,  very  hard,  and  cannot  be 
cut  with  ordinary  tools.  They  are  of  two  dimensions,  4x5x12  inches, 
and  quoted  at  $i  per  square  yard,  which  is  about  $35  per  thousand, 
and  4x4x12  inches,  at  75  cents  per  square  yard,  or  about  $28  per 
thousand. 

At  Empire,  O.,  a  light  blue  fire-clay  is  taken  from  a  drift  in  the 
side  of  a  mountain,  ground  in  a  pan,  molded  by  hand,  and  burned 
in  up-draft  open-top  kilns,  with  natural  gas.  The  bricks  are  hard, 
ring  like  steel,  and  are  quoted  at  $10  per  thousand.  Much  the 
same  process  is  employed  at  New  Brighton,  Pa.,  where  the  bricks 
made  from  fire-clay  are  claimed  to  be  as  hard  as  granite,  to  emit  a 
sharp,  steely  ring  when  struck,  and  to  resist  all  effects  except 
natural  wear. 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  17 1 

In  all  the  above  cases  no  addition  of  sand  or  other  material  is 
made.  In  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  a  brick,  in  form  a  truncated  pyramid, 
is  made  from  clay  and  iron  slag. 

As  the  condition  and  life  of  a  pavement  depend  upon  uniformity 
of  the  bricks,  they  should  all  be  burnt  to  a  uniform  hardness,  which 
cannot  be  obtained  in  ordinary  kilns.  If  soft  and  salmon  bricks  are 
found  at  the  top  of  a  kiln,  while  those  next  the  arches  are  over- 
burned,  waiped  and  melted,  the  cost  of  the  rest,  suitable  for  use,  is 
much  enhanced  by  the  waste. 

Crushing  Strength. — All  specimens  were  crushed  by  the  direct 
application  of  weights.  The  specimens  were  all  fxjxi^  inches, 
placed  on  end  between  pieces  of  soft  pine  about  £-inch  in  thickness. 
The  length  chosen  for  the  samples  -permits  the  shearing  action  to 
have  its  full  effect.  All  were  ground  to  true  size  on  emery  wheel 
and  grindstone,  and  carefully  calipered. 

In  Virden  "  A,"  the  short  axes  were  parallel  to  the  8J  inch  and 
4^  inch  dimensions  of  the  brick  from  which  it  was  taken.  It  was 
compact,  having  no  holes  or  spongy  places,  took  on  sharp  corners 
and  smooth  surfaces,  was  excessively  hard,  and  would  glaze  at  a 
white  heat  on  the  emery  wheel.  With  5,266  pounds,  it  crushed  by  a 
scale  of  about  \  inch  by  J  inch  by  i  inch,  first  flying  off  from  one 
vertical  edge,  accompanied  by  a  sharp  report,  immediately  followed 
by  splitting  into  nearly  prismatic  fragments,  parallel  to  the  action  of 
the  force. 

A  second  specimen  from  the  same  brick,  with  short  axes  parallel 
to  the  4^-inch  and  2-inch  dimensions  of  brick,  crushed  at  5,625 
pounds. 

Virden  "  B  "  did  not  take  on  as  true  dimensions  as  "A,"  though 
free  from  holes.  Crushed  at  5,160  pounds.  Virden  "  C,"  like  the 
preceding,  crushed  at  4,985  pounds. 

It  was  difficult  to  bring  Bloomington  "  A,"  as  well  as  the  next 
specimen,  to  the  required  dimensions,  because  of  a  tendency  to 
scale  when  heated  under  the  action  of  the  emery  wheel.  Several 
holes  occurred  in  them,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  bricks.  They  also 
glazed  somewhat  under  the  emery  wheel.  Crushed  at  5,693  pounds. 

The  second  specimen  crushed  in  smaller  prismatic  pieces,  at 
7,268  pounds. 

Bloomington  "  B "  was  excessively  hard  to  reduce  to  size, 
would  also  glaze,  but  not  scale  off,  took  on  smooth  surfaces  and 
sharp  edges,  and  had  spots  which  contained  a  yellow  powder. 
Crushed  at  5,565  pounds. 

Bloomington  "  C"  was  much  like  the  above.  Crushed  at  5,280 
pounds. 


172 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS. 


Good  Haverstraw  stock  bricks  of  a  fair  average,  test  at  East 
River  Bridge,  by  Mr.  Abbot,  with  no  packing  between  brick  and 
machine,  gave  : 

Crushing  Strength. 

(max.,        3,060  Ibs.  on  sq.  in. 
Whole  brick  on  end     . .    . .  •<  min. , 

(average, 

(max., 
Half  brick  on  flat  side -j  min. , 

(average,   3,371 

(max.,        6,400 
Half  brick  on  small  side -jmin.,         2,900 

(average,  4,612 

Experiments  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Pike,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  on 
building  bricks.  Half  bricks  between  pieces  of  pasteboard. 

Failed  with. 


1, 600 
2,065 

4,153 
2,669 


St.  Louis,  Mo.,   brick 


Hastings  red  brick. 


flatwise,     6,417  Ibs.  on  sq.  in. 
edgewise,  4,080        "  " 

hard,          2,017        "  " 

medium,    2,012        "  " 

soft,  1,748        " 

In  the  following  table  are  given  the  specific  gravity  (mean  of 
5  determinations),  the  absorption  for  three,  five,  and  ten  days,  after 
the  specimens  had  been  heated  to  a  red  heat,  cooled  in  a  desiccator 
and  weighed,  and  finally  the  crushing  strength  per  square  inch  of 
section. 


NAME. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Per  Cent.  Absorption. 

Crushing  Strength, 
Ibs.  on  sq.  inch. 

3  days. 

5  days. 

10  days 

Bloomins^ton  "A" 

2.1852 

2.3045 
2.2269 

2.3166 

2.4150 
2.3601 
2.2861 

3-79 

3.18 

I.87 

3.10 

7.67 
7-  ii 
3.25 

3.92 

3.19 
2.  2O 

3-12 

7.96 
7.48 
3-38 

4.06 

3-37 
2.70 

3.82 

8.7I 
8.70 
3.64 

{12,920  max. 
11,520  mean. 
10,120  min. 

9,893 
9,386 
(  10,000  max. 
•j  9,680  mean. 
(  9,361  min. 

9,i73 
8,862 

"B" 

"C"  ... 

Virden"A"             

,<B» 

»       "C"  

Hayden  Paving  Block  .  . 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  compare  the  crushing  strength  of  the 
above  with  that  of  some  common  or  building  bricks. 

Work  in  Different  Cities. — Paving  bricks  are  sometimes  laid  on  a 
foundation  of  broken  stone  covered  with  cement  mortar,  and  some- 
times on  sand.  It  will  hardly  be  expedient  to  go  into  details  now. 

At  St.  Louis,  ten  years  ago,  strips  of  pavement  22  inches  wide 
were  laid  down  as  a  test,  and  a  two-wheeled  cart  with  tires  2-J  inches 
wide,  and  loaded  to  two  tons,  or  800  pounds  per  inch  of  width,  was 
rolled  back  and  forth  by  machinery.  The  heaviest  traffic  at  that 
time  in  St.  Louis  was  75  tons  per  day  per  foot  of  width,  and  the 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  173 

average  for  business  streets  was  35  tons.  Estimating  the  effect  of 
horses'  shoes  at  one-third  of  this  amount,  50  tons  per  foot  were 
taken  as  a  standard.  The  samples  were  weighed  before  and  after 
testing,  and  were  subjected  to  an  amount  of  travel  by  the  above  cart 
equivalent  to  eight  and  one-half  years  on  the  street. 

The  total  abrasion  of  the  fire-brick  pavement  was  9  per  cent., 
or  a  depth  of  }  inches,  but  about  one-half  of  the  bricks  were  broken. 
Asphaltum  blocks  under  the  same  test  wore  14  per  cent.,  and  but 
one  was  broken.  Granite  block  were  scarcely  worn  appreciably, 
while  limestone  had  lost  10  per  cent.  The  action  of  the  elements 
would  have  affected  the  limestone  still  more,  as  would  also  probably 
have  been  the  case  with  the  bricks. 

As  a  result,  granite  blocks  were  chosen  for  streets  having  heavy 
traffic.  The  tests  seem  to  warrant  the  claim  that  brick  pavements 
will  answer  well  for  moderate  and  light  traffic. 

Soft  bricks  intermixed  may  give  trouble ;  but  the  first  cold 
season  will  usually  determine  whether  the  bricks  are  hard  enough, 
as,  if  not,  the  moisture  absorbed  by  them  will  freeze,  and  crumble 
the  bricks  by  expansion. 

At  Nashville,  Tenn.,  are  used  creosoted  or  bitumenized  bricks, 
prepared  by  saturating  common  kiln  bricks  of  medium  hardness, 
under  a  high  degree  of  heat,  with  liquid  pitch,  obtained  by  distilling 
coal-tar.  These  bricks  have  been  laid  about  four  years,  on  a  good 
foundation  of  rolled  macadam,  bedded  on  edge  in  i  J  inches  of  sand, 
and  rammed  tight.  They  have  been  subjected  to  a  considerable 
amount  of  traffic,  and  show  very  little,  if  any,  wear.  The  cost  was 
$1.80  per  square  yard  for  brick  and  laying  on  finished  foundation. 

At  Yougstown,  O.,  fire-brick  on  cement  concrete  base  and  sand 
with  pitch  in  joints,  cost  for  all  $1.73  per  square  yard.  Their  best 
bricks  came  from  Empire,  O.,  and  New  Brighton,  Pa. 

At  Allegheny  City,  Pa.,  fire-clay  bricks  from  the  West  Virginia 
Fire  Brick  Company  have  been  laid  in  two  layers  on  rammed  and 
rolled  gravel  and  sand,  at  a  cost  of  $1.95  per  square  yard,  exclusive 
of  grading.  The  pavement,  in  use  three  years,  is  stated  to  be  very 
smooth,  easily  cleaned,  and  of  a  handsome  appearance. 

At  Bloomington,  111.,  some  two  and  one-half  miles  of  brick 
paved  streets  have  been  laid  with  bricks  of  home  manufacture,  "A," 
"  B  "  and  "C."  The  sample  herewith  was  under  traffic  there  twelve 
years.  The  corner  and  edge  of  one  end,  and  also  the  large 
scale  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  same  side,  were  broken  off  with  a 
pick  in  removing  the  specimen  from  the  pavement.  It  does  not 
appear  to  have  lost  appreciably  in  width,  although  the  majority  did 
not  present  so  favorable  an  appearance,  having  generally  lost  the 
upper  edges  and  corners.  Such  pavements,  however,  are  not 


174  BRICK    PAVEMENTS. 

noticeably  rough  in  driving  over  them,  and  afford  good  foot-hold 
for  horses.  The  brick  pavements  in  Bloomington,  generally  speak- 
ing, are  in  good  condition,  and  are  being  constantly  extended. 
They  have  stone  blocks,  Nicholson,  and  macadam  pavements  also, 
and  prefer  brick,  on  the  score  of  cost,  durability,  lack  of  noise,  home 
production,  ease  of  cleaning  and  repairs.  The  entire  pavement,  two 
layers  of  brick,  including  all  materials,  grading  and  stone  curbs, 
cost  $2  per  square  yard,  with  laborers  at  $1.60  per  day,  teams  $3.25, 
and  sand  80  cents  to  90  cents  per  cubic  yard,  delivered. 

Jacksonville,  111.,  has  laid  over  three  miles  of  pavement  with 
Virden  brick.  Some  down  for  five  years  is  now  in  good  condition. 
One  piece  of  one-half  mile,  two  layers,  cost,  including  everything, 
engineer's  services  and  all,  $r.92  per  square  yard.  Sand  was  filled 
into  the  joints  in  place  of  pitch. 

Cincinnati  had  a  pavement  on  rolled  sand.     A  failure. 

Peoria,  111.,  paved  two  blocks  in  1886,  and  five  blocks  in  1887, 
with  Ottawa  paving  brick,  and  Chicago  used  the  same  brick  three  or 
four  years  ago  on  Sixty-third  Street  car  tracks. 

The  intersection  of  Washington  and  Dearborn  Streets,  Chicago, 
was  paved  with  Hayden  paving  blocks  in  1 886.  In  March,  1 888,  it  was 
found  to  have  succumbed  to  the  very  heavy  traffic,  and  crushed. 

Galesburg,  Decatur,  Champaign,  and  Springfield,  111.,  have  laid 
more  or  less  brick  pavement  within  five  years,  the  major  part  of 
which  has  given  satisfaction. 

New  Orleans,  and  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  Steubenville,  O.,  Camden, 
N.  J.,  and  other  places  have  laid  experimental  sections. 

The  disadvantages  of  brick  pavements  arise  from  lack  of 
uniformity  in  the  material,  and  the  liability  of  incorporating  in  the 
pavement  brick  of  too  soft  and  porous  structure,  which  crumble  the 
first  winter  under  the  action  of  frost. 

When  laid  on  a  solid  foundation,  the  advantages  are  cheapness, 
smoothness  and  cleanliness,  freedom  from  noise,  and  sanitary  excel- 
lence as  non-absorbent. 

Taking  all  things  into  consideration,  it  is  superior  to  macadam, 
wood,  and,  for  a  maximum  traffic  of  three  tons,  superior  to  granite. 

BRICK    PAVEMENTS   IN    NASHVILLE,    TENN.* 

CINCINNATI,  O.,  January  8,  1890. 

SIR  :  In  the  article  on  brick  pavements  in  your  issue  of  the  4th  inst.  ,f 
I  notice  a  statement  in  reference  to  brick  pavements  in  Nashville,  which  is 
not  quite  accurate. 


f  The  article  referred  to  was  a  paper  read  by  Charles  E.  Green  before 
the  tenth  annual  convention  of  the  Michigan  Engineering  Society. 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  175 

The  first  sample  of  "  creosoted  brick  "  pavement  laid  in  Nashville  was 
at  the  intersection  of  Union  and  College  Streets.  This  was  put  down  by 
the  inventor  or  patentee  of  that  pavement  as  a  sample,  using  carefully 
selected  brick,  and  doing  the  work  in  the  best  possible  manner.  Notwith- 
standing this  fact  the  pavement  did  not  wear  satisfactorily,  and  was  taken 
up  in  the  summer  of  1888  when  it  was  almost  worn  out,  and  replaced  with 
granite,  after  being  in  use  about  three  years. 

In  1887  a  part  of  Union  Street,  beginning  at  the  intersection  named 
above,  was  paved  with  creosoted  brick  by  the  same  person  or  contractor 
who  paved  the  intersection  of  College  and  Union  Streets,  but  the  work  was 
evidently  not  done  with  the  same  quality  of  materials  or  care  as  the  first 
sample  put  down,  and  this  pavement  is  practically  worn  out,  and  will  be 
replaced  with  something  more  permanent  in  the  coming  summer.  This 
general  information  was  obtained  by  me  during  a  recent  visit  to  Nashville, 
but  I  prefer,  before  you  publish  the  facts,  that  you  should  write  to  Mr.  J. 
A.  Jowett,  the  City  Engineer  of  Nashville,  and  obtain  further  information 
as  to  dates  and  details,  which  I  am  not  able  to  give. 

I  may  add  in  this  connection  that  a  part  of  Seventh  Street,  between 
Market  and  Georgia  Avenue,  in  Chattanooga,  Tenn. ,  was  paved  during 
last  season  with  this  creosoted  brick.  It  has  not  of  course  been  long  enough 
in  use  to  demonstrate  whether  or  not  it  will  prove  durable  and  satisfactory. 
The  bricks  used  were  selected  ordinary  red  brick,  boiled  in  coal  tar  and  laid 
upon  a  foundation  of  hydraulic  concrete. 

S.  WHINERY, 
General  Manager  of  the  Warren-Scharf  Asphalt  Paving  Company. 

FIRE-BRICK    PAVEMENTS   FOR    CARRIAGEWAYS.* 

Paving  Brick. — Brick  pavements  have  been  used  for  a  long 
time  in  Holland,  where  the  "clinkers"  of  ordinary  bricks  are  laid 
in  the  wheelways  ;  but  those,  though  hard  enough,  are  too  brittle 
for  pavements  carrying  heavy  traffic.  In  this  country  fire-brick 
have  been  used  for  some  time,  giving  a  regular,  clean  and  nearly 
noiseless  pavement,  with  possibly  the  best  foot-hold  for  horses  of 
any  pavement  known. 

Used  in  Wheeling,  W.  Va. —  Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  probably  has 
more  of  this  pavement  than  any  other  place,  and  the  Ohio  Valley 
Manufacturer,  of  that  city,  indorses  the  pavement  very  strongly. 
The  first  of  these  pavements  was  laid  in  New  Cumberland,  W.  Va., 
some  six  years  ago,  and  in  November,  1883,  a  part  of  Chapline 
Street,  in  Wheeling,  was  laid  with  fire-brick,  where,  on  account 
of  the  bad  condition  of  the  streets  on  each  side  of  it,  there  was  a 
concentration  of  traffic.  The  Manufacturer  says  : 

This  pavement  has  not  received  a  dollar's  improvement  since  it  was 
laid,  over  five  years  ago,  and  is  apparently  as  good  now  as  when  it  was 
laid.  Every  year  since  the  area  has  been  extended,  and  now  fire-brick 
pavement  covers  several  miles  of  our  streets.  To  say  that  it  gives  satis- 
faction very  mildly  expresses  it.  We  believe  it  receives  the  approval 
and  indorsement  of  every  citizen  of  Wheeling,  without  a  single  exception. 

*  Ed.  xix,  183. 


176  BRICK    PAVEMENTS. 

Construction, — In  laying,  abed  of  compact  earth  is  covered  with 
four  inches  of  good  gravel  and  that  with  two  or  three  inches  of  sand, 
on  which  the  brick  are  laid  transversely  on  edge,  and  then  thor- 
oughly rolled  with  a  heavy  roller.  A  light  coating  of  sand  is  then 
given  and  the  whole  treated  with  a  top  dressing  of  coal-tar  and 
pitch  heated  to  300°  Fahr.  This  dressing  with  coal-tar  and  pitch 
should  be  repeated  annually  as  it  prolongs  the  life  of  the  pavement. 
The  bricks  should  not  be  too  large  for  thorough  burning,  8^x4x2^ 
inches  is  found  to  be  the  preferable  size,  and  a  fire-clay  is  recom- 
mended containing  more  iron  than  is  admissible  in  bricks  for  furnace 
linings. 

Cost, — Bricks  of  the  above-mentioned  size  are  furnished  at 
Wheeling  for  $10  per  thousand,  which  will  lay  about  17  square  yards, 
and  the  total  cost  varies  with  the  labor  of  preparing  the  road-bed, 
etc.,  from  $1.25  to  95  cents  per  square  yard  ;  the  last  mentioned 
price  is  without  the  pitch  dressing,  which  costs  about  12^  cents  per 
square  yard. 

Brick  and  Granite  Blocks. — The  Manufacturer  adds  : 
The  most  serious  obstacle  that  has  prevented  the  adoption  of  this 
pavement  by  many  of  the  largest  cities,  notably  Buffalo,  Cleveland,  Col- 
umbus and  Philadelphia,  are  the  cliques  and  rings  formed  by  the  owners  of 
stone  quarries  who  have  Belgian  and  granite  blocks  for  sale,  and  who  see 
in  the  fire-brick  an  enemy  that  will  eventually  retire  them  from  this  branch 
of  trade. 

This  is  doubtless  partially  true,  but  the  most  serious  obstacle 
might  well  be  said  to  be  the  supineness  of  our  more  intelligent  citi- 
zens, who  seldom  take  any  interest  in  the  public  improvements  unless 
it  may  be  to  deprecate  any  expenditure  for  them.  It  was  a  com- 
bination of  these  two  influences  which  has  resulted  in  the  noisy 
pavement  now  afflicting  Fifth  Avenue  in  New  York  City. 

BRICK    AND    GRAVEL    PAVEMENTS.* 

Suitable  Brick. — According  to  reports  large  areas  of  brick  pave- 
ment have  been  laid  during  the  past  year  in  Bloomington,  Decatur, 
Jacksonville  and  Galesburg,  111.,  and  experimental  sections  have 
been  laid  in  Camden,  N.  J.,  and  New  Orleans. 

Mr.  George  F.  Wightman,  in  a  paper  before  the  Illinois  Society 
of  Engineers  and  Surveyors,  says  :  "  Brick  pavements  have  been 
laid  which  show  remarkable  qualities  of  endurance.  There  are  but 
few  localities  in  which  clay  has  been  found  that  will  stand,  without 
fusing,  the  amount  of  fire  necessary  to  make  a  brick  hard  enough 
for  street  pavement.  Brick  in  every  way  suitable  have  been  made 
at  Haydenville,  O.,  Bloomington  and  Ottawa,  111.  Some  of  these 
pavements,  although  laid  ten  years  ago,  present  now  not  only  a  uni- 
form, but  a  very  smooth  surface." 

*xx,  658. 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  177 

Construction. — He  prescribes  the  method  of  laying  to  be  :  to 
excavate  ten  inches  and  roll  hard,  then  fill  with  four  inches  of  sand, 
on  which  a  course  of  bricks  are  laid  lengthwise  on  the  flat  and  so  as 
to  break  joints,  this  layer  to  be  tamped,  and  joints  swept  full  of 
sand.  Then  cover  with  one  inch  of  sand,  and  place  a  second  course 
of  brick,  laying  them  crosswise  and  on  edge.  Sweep  the  joints  full 
of  dry  sand  and  cover  one  inch  thick  with  sand.  This  upper 
course  to  be  burned  to  a  flint  hardness. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed,  Mr.  Bell  exhibited  samples  of 
bricks  which,  after  fourteen  years'  wear  at  Bloomington,  had  lost 
but  half  an  inch  in  width.  He  says  the  brick  pavements  are  the  first 
to  dry  after  a  rain.  That  in  Nashville,  Tenn.,  a  creosoted  brick  is 
in  use,  so  as  to  make  it  non-absorbent.  The  Bloomington  pave- 
ments are  laid  with  7 -inch  crown  in  36-foot  width  between  curbs. 

Mr.  Mead  stated  that  in  Wheeling  a  brick  was  made  of  clay 
and  iron  slag  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  pyramid. 

Gravel  Pavement. — Mr.  Wightman  gave  the  preference  to  a 
rolled  gravel  pavement,  over  either  macadam  or  brick.  He  would 
make  a  lower  layer,  6  inches  deep  at  centre  and  4  inches  at  sides,  of 
stone  or  coarse  gravel,  from  curb  to  curb,  well  rolled  ;  then  lay  on 
this  gutters  3  feet  wide  of  cobble-stone,  well  rammed,  and  with 
spaces  filled  with  fine  gravel.  The  roadbed  between  to  be  finished 
in  gravel  of  *4  to  i%  inches  diameter,  and  enough  clay,  loam,  or 
sand  to  make  it  bind,  and  thoroughly  compacted  with  a  five  to  six 
ton  roller. 

FIRE-BRICK    PAVEMENTS    FOR    ROADWAYS.* 

Not  Suitable  for  Heavy  Traffic. — A  report  has  been  made  public 
to  the  effect  that  a  specimen  piece  of  fire-brick  pavement  put  down 
in  1885  on  Pearl  street,  Cincinnati,  has  failed  utterly.  The  descrip- 
tion given  states  merely  that  the  foundation  was  sand,  well  rolled, 
but  says  nothing  as  to  the  thickness  of  the  brick-work.  It  has 
never  been  claimed  by  the  advocates  of  brick  pavements  that  it  was 
suitable  for  very  heavy  traffic  ;  and  it  is  possible  the  mistake  has 
been  made  in  this  case  of  subjecting  it  to  a  traffic  for  which  it  is 
not  fitted.  A  thin  pavement  on  a  sand  foundation  would  be  in  such 
case  pretty  sure  to  fail. 

Paving  Brick. — It  may  also  be  that  the  bricks  were  not  of  the 
right  sort,  as  they  need  to  be  hard-burned  and  vitrified  throughout. 
Such  bricks  are  reported  to  have  stood  a  crushing  strain  of  over 
8,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  approaching  in  this  respect  the  lower 
grades  of  granite.  It  would  be  manifestly  unfair  to  condemn  the 
use  of  brick  altogether  in  consequence  of  an  indefinite  report  such 

*Ed.  xvi,  318. 


178  BRICK    PAVEMENTS. 

as  this  is.  We  are  inclined  to  believe  that,  under  right  conditions, 
there  is  a  wide  field  to  be  usefully  occupied  by  well-made  brick 
pavements. 

BRICK    STREET    PAVEMENT.* 

Material  and  Cost. — The  following  is  a  portion  of  a  letter  ad- 
dressed by  W.  Voorhies,  Jr.,  to  the  Editor  of  the  Lexington  (Ky.) 
Daily  Press : 

The  city  of  Decatur,  111,  commenced  paving  the  streets  with  brick  four 
years  ago,  and  is  still  using  the  same  material,  having  paved  about  two 
miles  each  year.  So  we  have  had  only  four  years'  use  in  which  to  test  its 
durability.  As  to  appearance  and  smoothness  there  is  no  question,  for  it 
gives  universal  satisfaction  except  to  the  abutting  property  owners,  who  pay 
the  entire  expense,  the  city  only  paying  at  the  intersection  of  streets.  The 
first  laid  here  was  on  the  public  square,  which  is  probably  used  as  much  as 
any  street  in  the  city.  I  do  not  think  the  wear  on  this  will  amount  to  10  per 
cent.  This  work  was  laid  with  Bloomington,  111.,  brick,  made  of  the  yellow 
clay  underlying  the  black  soil.  They  cost  about  $10  per  i  ,000  delivered 
here.  We  are  now  using  home-made  brick,  which  are  equally  as  good, 
steam-pressed  and  burned  in  ovens  (same  ovens  used  for  burning  tile). 
They  are  burned  very  hard  ;  cost,  about  $10. 

The  entire  cost  of  this  brick  paving  is  $1.40  per  square  yard,  which  in- 
cludes the  necessary  grading,  which  consists  of  removing  about  one  foot 
of  the  surface  dirt  from  the  road-bed.  This  is  filled  with  coarse  gravel,  the 
center  rounded  about  a  foot  higher  than  the  edges.  On  this  is  laid  the  first 
course  of  brick,  flat  side  down  ;  then  a  layer  of  sand  one  inch  thick ;  then 
the  top,  or  finishing  course  of  brick,  laid  edgeways,  and  this  again  covered 
with  sand  to  fill  up  the  cracks  and  wedge  the  brick  solid,  completing  the 
work. 

Durability. — So  far  they  have  withstood  the  heaviest  loads  without  any 
serious  damage.  Barnum's  circus  wagons,  some  of  them  weighing  20,000 
pounds,  passed  over  them  after  a  heavy  rain  without  making  any  impres- 
sion except  where  gas  pipes  had  been  recently  laid  and  the  replaced  earth 
not  yet  thoroughly  settled.  Bloomington,  111. ,  has  had  brick  streets  in  use 
for  thirteen  years,  and  I  am  assured  that  they  are  in  good  condition  now, 
without  having  been  repaired. 

FIRE-BRICK    PAVEMENTS.f 

Durability  and  Cost. — A  committee,  after  visiting  Steubenville 
and  Wheeling  to  examine  the  pavements  there,  reported  that  it  is 
smooth,  durable,  cheap,  and  free  from  noise.  On  the  entire  length 
of  one  street  examined  in  Wheeling  they  did  not  find  a  broken  or 
crushed  brick.  Part  of  the  paving  had  been  down  two  years  and  an- 
other part  three  years,  and  one  was  apparently  as  perfect  as  the 
other.  The  bricks  are  made  from  a  softer  clay,  and  are  burned 
harder  than  ordinary  brick.  A  pressure  of  eighty  tons  was  not  suf- 
ficient to  crush  one. 

*xviii,  146.     f  xv,  375.     From  Cleveland  Leader. 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  179 

Mr.  J.  F.  Holloway,  civil  engineer,  read  a  paper  strongly  in- 
dorsing the  use  of  this  material.  A  pavement  in  Allegheny  City 
examined  by  him  was  very  smooth,  and  he  could  not  hear  the  rum- 
ble of  carriage- wheels  until  they  were  within  fifty  feet  of  him.  The 
street  was  easily  cleaned,  and  made  a  handsome  appearance.  The 
pavement  can  be  laid  for  from  $1.20  to  $1.60  per  square  yard.  Not 
one  of  a  number  of  2-inch  cubes  failed  under  sixteen  tons  pressure  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  they  bore  safely  a  strain  of  8,000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  which  is  considerably  more  than  the  crushing  strength 
of  the  best  pressed  brick. 

The  bricks  are  9x5x2  inches  or  3  inches,  and  are  made  in  West 
Virginia.  The  upper  layer  is  laid  on  edge  with  the  spaces  filled 
with  pitch  or  tar  and  covered  with  sand. 

BRICK    PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION    AND    DURABILITY.* 

The  first  pavement  considered  was  brick.  As  laid  at  several 
places,  the  graded  street  is  covered  with  several  inches  of  sand,  on 
which  is  placed  two  layers  of  brick,  the  first  on  the  flat,  the  second 
on  edge,  making  about  six  inches  thickness  of  brick.  This  they 
report  against,  principally  on  the  ground  of  lack  of  uniformity  in 
the  material.  They  found  no  place  where  the  pavement  was  satis- 
factory except  on  streets  having  very  light  traffic.  Bloomington , 
111.,  favored  it  where  not  more  than  100  teams  per  day  passed  over 
it.  Decatur,  111.,  and  Cincinnati  reported  against. 

A  recent  report  upon  the  wear  of  fire-brick  pavement  in  Steu- 
benville,  O.,  shows  the  wear  to  have  been  less  than  ^-inch  annually, 
but  the  amount  of  traffic  is  not  stated.  An  experiment  reported  as 
to  absorption  shows  it  to  be  inappreciable  at  the  end  of  twelve  hours. 
Fire-brick  for  this  purpose  are  now  manufactured  in  West  Virginia 
and  in  Clearfield  County,  Pennsylvania,  f 

TESTS    OF   PAVING    BRICK.J 

Noticing  a  newspaper  clipping  referring  to  some  tests  of  paving 
brick  made  by  City  Civil  Engineer  Walter  P.  Rice,  of  Cleveland,  O., 
we  wrote  for  verification  of  the  item  and  received  the  following  copy 
of  the  report,  which  is  dated  May  6.  The  foot-note  being  added  by 
Mr.  Rice  for  publication  in  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record : 

CLEVELAND,  O.,  May  6,  1889. 

In  the  specifications  for  paving  Bolton  Avenue  with  fire-clay  brick  the 
following  clause  was  inserted  : 

' «  Testing  Bricks. — The  city  reserves  the  right,  after  the  bids  are  received 
and  before  the  awarding  of  the  contract  to  any  bidder,  to  make  such  tests 
of  the  sample  bricks  deposited  in  the  engineer's  office  as  said  engineer  shall 
recommend  or  deem  necessary  to  determine  the  durability  and  fitness  of 

*  xv,  375.  From  a  Report  to  Common  Council  of  Topeka,  Kan.     f  xv,  658. 

Jxix,  343. 


180  BRICK    PAVEMENTS. 

the  material  proposed  to  be  furnished  by  such  bidder,  as  shown  by  his  sam- 
ples, and  reserves  the  right  to  hold  the  bids,  not  to  exceed  two  weeks,  for 
such  purpose,  and  any  bricks  not  fulfilling  the  requirements  of  the  specifi- 
cations or  that  may  be  deemed  unfit  for  paving  purposes,  as  shown  by  such 
test,  will  be  rejected  and  the  bid  considered  as  not  in  conformity  with  said 
specifications.  The  cost  of  the  test  made  upon  all  samples  submitted,  not 
to  exceed  $50,  to  be  paid  by  the  party  or  parties  receiving  the  contract." 

In  conformity  with  above  clause  tests  were  made  on  :  (i)  absorption  ; 
(2)  attrition  ;  (3)  impact ;  (4)  freezing  and  impact.  In  all  probability  the 
samples  furnished  are  a  little  better  than  the  general  run,  and  the  number 
of  test  pieces  in  each  case  being  small.  The  results  are,  therefore,  relative, 
not  absolute,  but  may  be  safely  taken  as  a  basis  of  judgment.  I  have  no  hesi- 
tation as  a  result  in  recommending  the  Porter's  Union  brick,  manufactured 
in  West  Virginia,  for  this  street.  As  a  result  of  the  different  tests,  I  would 
accord  the  following  rank  to  the  different  specimens  submitted,  Medina 
stone  being  put  through  the  same  tests  as  a  standard  for  comparison 
Medina  sandstone,  i;  Porter's  Union,  fire-clay  brick,  i;  Porter's  -5£tna,  fire- 
clay brick,  2  ;  Massillon  Star,  fire-clay  brick,  3  ;  United  States,  fire-clay 
brick,  4  ;  Williams'  Canton,  fire-clay  brick,  5  ;  McReynold's  Patent,  brick, 
6  ;  Rielley's,  Pa.,  fire-clay  brick,  7  ;  Claflen  Paving  Company's  red  brick,  8  ; 
Claflen  Paving  Company's  Malvern  fire-clay  brick,  9.  Ordinary  building 
brick  stands  about  the  same  as  Claflen  Paving  Company's  sample  of  red 
brick.  Respectfully  submitted, 

WALTER  P.  RICE, 

City  Civil  Engineer. 

NOTE — In  comparing  Porter's  Union  with  Medina  sandstone  I  would 
not  have  it  inferred  from  above  that  the  same  rank  would  hold  good  in 
actual  practice.  WALTER  P.  RICE. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    BRICK    PAVEMENT.* 

From  the   specifications  for  paving  Wick  Avenue  in  Youngs- 
town,  O.,  with  vitrified  fire-clay  brick,  we  abstract  as  follows  : 

The  pavement  is  to  consist  of  vitrified  fire-clay  brick  laid  on  a  founda- 
tion of  concrete  composed  of  furnace  slag,  or  cinder  and  sand,  with  joints 
filled  with  hot  paving  cement  or  coal-tar.  The  bricks  are  to  be  hard-burned 
and  vitrified  entirely  through,  free  from  cracks,  true  and  smooth,  and  are 
to  stand  a  crushing  load  of  36,000  pounds  on  pieces  two  inches  cube.  The 
street  is  to  be  excavated  u£  inches  below  finished  surface  of  pavement,  and 
all  soft  places  made  good.  The  filling  in  sewer  trenches,  etc.,  to  be  probed 
with  a  rod,  and  where  soft  to  be  removed  and  carefully  refilled  and  rammed. 
Where  ground  is  wet,  agricultural  tile-drain  to  be  laid  at  two  feet  below 
finished  surface,  and  carried  to  nearest  catch-basin.  The  concrete  founda- 
tion to  be  six  inches  thick.  The  slag  or  cinder  is  from  Bessemer  furnaces, 
and  contains  considerable  lime,  making  it  almost  equal  to  hydraulic  cement. 
The  fresh  material  is  brought  while  still  hot,  dumped  into  a  box,  and  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  water  to  make  the  concrete,  and  then  spread  and  rammed 
in  the  usual  way. 

On  the  bed  thus  made  two  inches  of  sand  are  spread  to  a  uniform 
thickness  by  means  of  guide  strips,  which  are  then  removed,  and  the  bricks 

*xv,  658. 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  l8l 

laid  in  lines  crossing  the  roadway,  and  so  as  to  break  joints  by  at  least 
three  inches.  The  bricklayers  are  to  stand  on  the  finished  work  while 
laying. 

The  bricks  are  then  to  be  rammed  with  a  wooden  rammer  weighing 
twenty  pounds,  after  which  the  joints  are  to  be  filled  with  the  paving  cement 
heated  to  at  least  300°  Fahr.  This  cement  to  consist  of  coal-tar  pitch  and 
croesote  oil.  The  surface  to  be  covered  with  sand.  All  broken  bricks  to 
be  removed.  The  contractor  to  lay  at  least  300  square  yards  per  day.  Then 
follow  the  usual  requirements  as  to  care  of  the  work,  clearing  away  the 
rubbish,  etc. 

BRICK  PAVEMENTS  IN    OHIO  CITIES.* 

City  Engineer  S.  W.  Parshall,  with  the  Street  Committee  of 
Akron,  O.,  have  made  a  report  on  the  brick  pavements  of  several 
Ohio  cities.  They  recommend  them  for  their  city,  giving,  among 
other  reasons,  that  being  the  centre  of  the  earthen  pipe  and  brick- 
making  industries  the  paving  brick  can  be  made  at  home,  increasing 
the  employment  of  local  labor.  Among  the  cities  visited  were  Can- 
ton, Cleveland  and  Columbus.  In  Canton  they  found  two  kinds  of 
brick  pavement  in  the  process  of  construction,  one  of  a  hard  West 
Virginia  and  the  other  of  Williams'  Canton  road  brick.  Both  of 
these  pavements  are  laid  on  gravel  foundations,  rolled  with  a  steam 
roller,  and  the  joints  of  brick  filled  with  asphaltic  paving  cement. 
Being  only  a  short  time  in  use,  no  opinion  is  offered  as  to  their  dura- 
bility. A  short  piece  of  brick  pavement  in  Canton,  put  down  two 
or  three  years  ago  with  Williams'  Canton  fire  brick,  shows  signs  of 
disintegrating  and  crumbling,  and  could  be  readily  cut  with  a 
knife,  because,  as  was  said,  of  the  softness  of  the  brick  made  at 
that  time. 

In  Cleveland  but  four  short  streets  had  been  paved  during  the 
past  three  years  with  brick,  and  these  with  cement  joints.  Experi- 
ence there  impressed  the  Committee  with  the  imperative  necessity 
of  properly  preparing  and  rolling  the  foundation  and  cementing  the 
joints  of  both  stone  and  brick  pavements.  The  brick  mostly  used 
were  Porter's  union  brand  and  West  Virginia  fire-clay  brick. 

"All  pavements  in  Columbus,"  the  Committee  says,  "are  con- 
structed with  great  care,  as  it  appears  to  us.  After  excavation  has 
been  made  to  a  proper  depth,  broken  limestone  is  scattered  over  it 
in  such  a  way  that  after  it  is  rolled  with  a  10  or  15 -ton  steam-roller 
it  will  be  six  inches  thick  and  of  the  same  cross-section  as  the  street 
when  finished.  After  this  is  done  a  course  of  sand  two  or  two  and 
a  half  inches  thick  is  put  on  to  make  a  bed  for  brick  or  stone  pave- 
ments. When  the  paving  blocks  are  laid  they  are  rammed  down  and 
the  joints  are  filled  with  paving  cement.  This  makes  the  entire 
pavement  one  homogeneous  mass,  firm,  impervious  to  water,  in  a 

*xxi,  50. 


182  BRICK    PAVEMENTS. 

sanitary  view  of  the  best,  doing  away  with  filth  and  disease-breeding 
deposits  that  collect  in  the  joints  of  pavements  not  cemented. 

In  Columbus  we  did  not  see  a  poor  pavement  that  was  laid  by 
the  city.  The  granite  block  sheet  asphalt  were  laid  as  usual  with 
asphalt  on  old  cobble-stone  pavement  as  a  base.  The  brick  pave- 
ments were  in  the  best  condition,  all  being  pleasant  to  ride  on, 
attractive  to  look  at,  and  were  in  keeping  with  the  thrift  of  the  city, 
in  which  all  her  citizens  seemed  to  take  pride." 

Opinion  as  to  durability  is  withheld,  as  the  pavements  have  not 
yet  been  down  three  years. 

BRICK    PAVEMENTS    AT    FREMONT,  O.* 

Mr.  H.  Coleman,  President  of  the  United  States  Fire  Clay  Com- 
pany, of  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in  a  communication  to  a  newspaper  gives 
some  figures  of  cost  of  brick  pavement  at  Fremont,  O.,  which  may 
be  of  interest  to  contractors  and  city  officials.  He  says  : 

Contractors  at  Fremont,  O.,  who  have  just  completed  laying  a  large 
quantity  of  pavement  at  this  place  this  season,  report  the  cost  per  square 
yard  of  our  fire  brick  pavement  laid  complete  to  be  $1.58. 

In  laying  this  pavement  they  first  excavated  12  inches  of  earth,  then 
used  for  ballast  8  inches  of  crushed  stone  ;  this  was  well  rolled  with  a  6  to 
8-ton  roller,  and  on  top  of  this  stone  was  used  4  inches  of  sand.  The  brick 
are  then  laid  on  the  sand  transversely  with  the  street,  every  other  course 
being  started  with  a  half  brick,  thus  breaking  joints  throughout  the  entire 
pavement.  The  sand,  however,  before  laying  the  brick,  is  made  a  little 
crowning  in  the  centre,  thus  giving  an  opportunity  for  surface  water  to  run 
into  the  gutters.  The  pavement  is  then  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller.  The 
crushed  stone  cost  on  the  street  at  Fremont,  O.,  $i  per  cubic  yard  or  2  cents 
per  square  yard,  8  inches  deep  ;  the  sand  cost  $i  per  cubic  yard  delivered 
on  the  street,  or  n  cents  per  square  yard  4  inches  deep. 

The  contractors  above  referred  to  say  that  6  or  8  inches  of  good  gravel 
or  sand  without  the  crushed  stone  would  make  a  first-class  pavement. 

BRICK    PAVEMENTS    IN    CHARLESTON,  S.  C.f 

Mr.  T.  A.  Hugenin,  Superintendent  of  Streets,  Charleston,  S.  C, 
writes  us  in  response  to  our  reference  to  a  brick  pavement  in  Cin- 
cinnati, on  page  318,  issue  of  August  20,  that  brick  prepared  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  method  patented  by  him  have  been  "  laid  in  Charles- 
ton for  three  years,  and  subjected  to  the  heaviest  traffic "  of  that 
city  "  with  entire  satisfaction,  showing  less  wear  than  the  granite 
block  immediately  adjacent." 

PRIORITY    OF    USE    OF    BRICK    FOR    PAVEMENT, 

CHARLESTON,  W.  VA.,  July  18,  18884 

SIR:  I  notice  an  inquiry  about  "brick  street  pavements"  in  your  issue 
of  June  30.  This  city  was  the  first  in  America,  or  in  the  world,  to  adopt 
brick  paving  for  street  roadways,  and  now  has  several  miles  of  it  in  use. 

*xxi,  67.     fxvi,  374.     {xviii,  103. 


BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  183 

One  street,  laid  in  1873,  after  fifteen  years'  constant  and  hard  service, 
and  practically  without  repairs,  is  almost  as  good  to-day  as  when  first  laid. 
The  city  is  extending  it  every  year  to  other  streets  as  fast  as  they  are  able 
to  pay  for  it.  Several  other  cities  have  now  introduced  it. 

J.  P.  HALK. 

186  DEVONSHIRE  STREET,  BOSTON,  August  i,  1888.* 

SIR  :  In  your  issue  of  July  28,  Mr.  J.  P.  Hale  claims  for  the  city  of 
Charleston,  W.  Va.,  the  honor  of  being  the  "first  city  in  the  world"  to 
use  brick  pavement  for  streets. 

His  statement  may  be  correct,  but  at  The  Hague,  in  Holland,  brick 
pavement  is  used  very  extensively  for  roadways,  and  most  things  in  Hol- 
land claim  some  antiquity  at  least. 

An  examination  of  the  bricks  proved  very  few  indeed  to  have  l?een  frac- 
tured by  the  traffic  upon  them.  A  later  experience  in  trying  to  break  one 
in  pieces  in  order  to  bring  home  a  sample,  explained  their  perfect  condition. 
I  have  never  seen  an  American  brick  approaching  them  in  toughness,  and 
am  sure  that  any  of  our  common  bricks.would  be  crushed  to  fragments  with 
a  fraction  of  the  hard  usage  which  they  seem  to  stand  with  impunity. 

They  are  very  small ;  more  or  less  chocolate  in  color,  and  in  the  streets 
are  laid  on  edge. 

It  opens  a  problem  of  compounding  or  selecting  a  clay  with  a  special 
view  to  toughness  which  may  open  the  road  to  fortune  to  some  of  our  native 
brick-makers.  W.  G.  PRESTON,  Architect. 

[Our  correspondent  is  probably  correct  as  to  the  priority  of  use 
of  bricks  for  roadways  in  Holland.  Had  Mr.  Hale  confined  his 
claim  to  cities  in  this  country  we  think  he  would  have  been  correct. 

Reports  on  London  (Eng.)  pavements  dating  back  to  1839  (see 
pp.  150  and  195,  Vol.  XVII.),  only  once  mention  the  use  of  brick 
pavements — viz.,  in  1877. 

As  to  toughness,  we  are  led  to  believe,  from  descriptions  pub- 
lished, that  the  bricks  used  for  this  purpose  here  have  been  of  excel- 
lent quality,  but  have  not  had  opportunity  for  personal  examination. 

Those  who  have  seen  the  small  Holland  bricks  found  in  old 
buildings  in  New  York,  can  bear  witness  that  those  who  made  them 
certainly  understood  their  business ;  but  we  have  no  doubt  equally 
good  can  be  and  are  made  here  when  a  sufficient  price  is  paid.] 

EARTHEN    TILE    PAVEMENT. f 

A  pavement  of  earthen  tile  blocks,  about  8  inches  square  and 
4  inches  thick,  impregnated  with  bituminous  products  and  laid  with 
hot  tar  joints  on  6  inches  of  concrete,  has  been  put  down  experi- 
mentally in  Berlin.  It  is  not  expected  to  be  subjected  to  the  Amer- 
ican process  of  tearing  up  every  few  months  to  lay  down  a  new  line 
of  pipes  in  the  street,  and  to  be  relaid  by  a  contractor  who  is  not 
responsible  to  anybody. 

*xviii,  129.    t*x>  544- 


184  MISCELLANEOUS    ROAD-METALING    MATERIAL. 

PAVEMENTS    FROM    BLAST-FURNACE    SLAG.* 

In  the  Hanover  district  of  Germany  the  blast  furnaces  make  a 
specialty  of  a  road-metaling  material  called  slag-stone.  For  its  prep- 
aration the  slag  as  tapped  from  the  furnace  is  run  into  a  bottomless 
cast-iron  mold,  which  is  tapering  to  the  top  and  stands  on  an  iron 
truck.  After  the  slag  has  cooled  enough  to  have  an  outer  shell  suf- 
ficiently strong  to  support  the  melted  mass  inside  the  mold  is  lifted 
off  and  placed  on  another  truck  ready  for  use,  while  the  loaded  truck 
is  run  off  to  the  dump-heap,  where  the  truncated  cone  is  pierced  and 
the  slag  run  on  to  the  ground  and  covered  with  cinders  and  ashes 
and  allowed  to  cool  very  slowly.  This  makes  the  slag  much  tougher 
than  when  allowed  to  cool  in  the  open  air,  and  it  is  said  to  wear  very 
well  when  broken  properly  and  placed  on  roads. 

The  ordinary  brittle  slag  makes  a  very  good  foundation  for  a 
road,  particularly  on  clay  and  wet  soils,  as  by  rolling,  the  top  pieces 
form  a  powder  that  fills  the  interstices  between  the  lower  fragments 
so  thoroughly  that  neither  clay  nor  mud  can  work  up  through  the 
layer,  and  on  this  the  more  durable  wearing  layers  can  be  placed. 
It  was  found  impossible  to  form  any  roads  on  the  soft  clay  surface 
of  the  Centennial  Fair  Grounds  at  Philadelphia  until  their  beds  had 
been  prepared  by  a  layer  of  well- rolled  furnace-slag,  after  which 
they  stood  very  heavy  teaming  without  underdraining  ;  the  bonding 
of  the  fragments  of  slag  with  the  thorough  filling  of  the  interstices 
preventing  any  mud  from  working  through  the  first  or  lower  layer, 
thus  keeping  the  road  from  breaking  up. 

STEEL    PAVING    BLOCKS. f 

A  substitute  for  granite  blocks  for  paving  purposes  is  a  steel 
paving  block  claimed  to  have  superior  durability  and  whose  cost  is 
said  to  be  somewhat  less  than  the  stone.  It  is  thus  described  : 

The  block  is  made  of  steel  strips,  some  2^  inches  wide  by  i 
thick,  with  a  rolled  channel  on  the  side  exposed  to  traffic,  and  con- 
taining notches  about  half  a  foot  apart.  The  weight  of  these  strips 
is  ii  pounds  to  the  yard ;  they  are  laid  across  the  street,  a  distance 
about  5  inches  between  centres,  and  as  their  length  is  sufficient  only 
to  extend  to  the  middle  of  the  street  the  proper  slope  from  the  centre 
to  the  gutters  is  easily  secured.  To  insure  their  not  slipping  side- 
wise  they  are  bolted  together  and  fastened  to  wooden  sills  The 
support  for  the  new  pavement  is  composed  of  a  firmly  constructed 
bed  of  gravel,  while  between  the  steel  strips  a  compound  of  pitch 
and  cement  is  poured,  filling  the  interstices  to  a  level  with  the 
tops  of  the  strips,  and  rendering  the  surface  comparatively 
smooth. 

*  xvi,  547.     fxix,  212. 


MISCELLANEOUS    ROAD-METALING    MATERIAL.  185 

*  Our  Milwaukee  correspondent  sends  a  newspaper  clipping 
which  says  :  "  The  North  Chicago  Rolling  Mill  Company  has  com- 
pleted an  order  for  fifty  tons  of  steel  rails,  of  a  peculiar  pattern,  to 
be  used  in  paving  a  block  in  Chicago.  The  rails  were  rolled  in  the 
Merchant  Mill  of  the  Bay  View  Works.  They  are  16  feet  10  inches 
in  length  and  have  a  grooved  surface  on  top,  to  render  them  rough, 
so  that  horses  will  not  slip  upon  them.  The  rails  will  be  placed  a 
few  inches  apart,  and  the  space  between  will  be  filled  with  a  patent 
composition,  which  is  said  to  be  very  hard  and  durable.  The  pave- 
ment is  to  be  used  where  there  is  very  heavy  teaming.  If  the  experi- 
ment proves  successful  it  is  probable  that  many  of  the  Chicago  bus- 
iness streets  will  be  paved  in  a  like  manner." 

EXPERIMENTING    WITH    A    COMPOSITE    PAVEMENT    IN    PARIS.f 

A  correspondent  in  a  letter  to  Le  Genie  Civil ,  calls  attention  to 
a  composite  pavement  laid  by  an  American  syndicate  on  the  Rue  de 
Rivoli  in  Paris,  which  he  states  in  eight  days  after  it  was  open  to 
traffic  began  to  break  up.  It  seems  that  this  pavement  was  laid  on 
the  Rue  de  Rivoli,  where  the  traffic  amounts  to  33,000  vehicles  per 
twenty-four  hours,  and  the  contractors  who  had  agreed  to  keep  it  in 
repair  for  two  years  failed  to  take  into  account  this  unusual  amount 
of  traffic.  Hence  they  are  relaying  the  pavement  with  greatest  care 
to  meet  these  extreme  conditions.  Another  year's  trial  will  doubt- 
less demonstrate  whether  this  kind  of  pavement  will  be  suitable  for 
such  heavy  traffic. 

PROPORTIONS    FOR    CEMENT    PAVEMENTS\J 

The  Moniteur  de  la  Ceramique  gives  the  results  of  some  experi- 
ments by  M.  Bohme  on  the  durability  and  resistance  to  wear  of 
cement  pavements. 

In  a  series  of  experiments,  with  twenty-eight  different  mixtures 
of  cement  with  a  perfectly  uniform  sand,  he  eliminated  the  variations 
usually  due  to  irregularities  in  quality,  and  second  results  indicating 
that  the  durability  of  the  pavement  does  not  depend  materially  upon 
the  tensile  or  crushing  strength  of  the  cement  as  usually  determined. 

In  this  series  of  experiments  the  proportion  of  sand  to  cement 
giving  the  best  results  varied  from  i  to  i  to  2  to  i,  i^  to  i  proving 
best  in  the  majority  of  cases  and  being  recommended  for  use  with 
cements  whose  properties  have  not  been  specially  investigated. 

The  resistance  to  wear  of  pure  cement  is  in  general  equal  to 
that  of  a  mortar  composed  of  2  parts  cement  and  7  parts  sand,  but 
this  proportion  varied  considerably,  ranging  in  the  experiments  from 
i  to  2  to  i  to  5. 

*xvi,  685.    f  xv,  521.    Jxviii,  175. 


l86  MISCELLANEOUS    ROAD-METALING    MATERIAL. 

ASHES    AND    CINDERS.* 

Professor  I.  O.  Baker,  in  his  address  before  the  Illinois  Society 
of  Engineers  and  Surveyors,  mentioned  an  experimental  section  of 
iron  pavement  in  Chicago ;  also  the  experiment  in  Toledo,  of  cover- 
ing unpaved  streets  with  six  inches  of  cinder  and  ashes. 

This  covering  becomes  so  compact  that  in  winter  heavy  loads  do 
not  cut  through  it,  and  in  summer  it  is  less  dusty  than  an  ordinary 
earthen  roadway. 

RUBBER    PAVEMENT.f 

For  paving  streets  India-rubber  threatens  to  enter  into  com- 
petition with  asphalt.  A  recent  number  of  Kuhlow's  gives  a  fuller 
account  of  this  new  pavement,  which  was  briefly  noted  in  our  issue 
of  January  12.  It  is  the  invention  of  Herr  Busse,  of  Linden,  who 
has  introduced  it  in  Hanover.  He  used  it  first  in  the  summer  of 
1887  for  paving  the  Gcethe  Bridge,  which  has  a  surface  of  about 
1,000  square  meters,  or  10,764  square  feet.  The  new  pavement,  it 
is  stated,  proved  so  satisfactory  that  1,500  square  meters  (16,146 
square  feet)  of  ordinary  carriageway  in  the  city  were  paved  with  it 
last  summer.  The  Berlin  corporation,  being  favorably  impressed 
with  the  new  pavement,  has  had  a  large  area  paved  with  India- 
rubber  as  an  experiment,  and  the  magistracy  of  Hamburg  is  like- 
wise trying  the  pavement.  It  is  asserted  that  the  new  pavement 
combines  the  elasticity  of  India-rubber  with  the  resistance  of  granite. 
It  is  said  to  be  perfectly  noiseless,  and  unaffected  either  by  heat  or 
cold.  It  is  no^  so  slippery  as  asphalt,  and  is  more  durable  than  the 
latter.  As  a  covering  for  bridges,  it  ought  to  prove  excellent,  as  it 
reduces  vibration  ;  but  a  question  may  be  asked  as  to  its  cost.  The 
expense  must  be  heavier  than  that  of  any  known  pavement. 


xv,  658-!  xix,  157. 


CHAPTER  V. 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS  AND  TRAMWAYS. 

A  NOVEL    FORM    OF    STREET    CURB.* 

As  a  matter  of  interest  we  reproduce  from  La  Semaine  des  Con- 
structeurs  of  September  18,  a  description  of  a  novel  form  of  street 
curb,  recently  introduced  at  Verdun  in  France.  This  application 
of  cast  iron  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Nicot,  a  contractor  for~asphalt 
paving,  and  it  is  now  in  use  on  about  two  miles  of  sidewalks.  The 
curb  is  cast  in  lengths,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  of  an  L-shaped "section, 


"  '  ^*  'I'U''' 


with  ribs  or  knees,  the  bearing  of  the  latter  being  enlarged  by  an 
expansion  of  the  bottom  flange.  The  segments  rest  on  a  bed  of 
concrete,  and  the  concrete  is  also  filled  in  upon  the  bottom  flange, 
as  shown  in  the  sections,  so  that  the  curb  is  held  firmly  in  place. 
The  surface  of  the  sidewalk  is  finished  in  asphalt  to  the  level  of  the 
top  of  the  curb. 

*xv,  658. 


i88 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 


In  addition,  a  peg  of  wood  or  iron  (Fig.  i)  is  driven  in  the 
earth  behind,  opposite  the  end  ribs,  and  secured  to  the  ribs  by  a 
galvanized  iron  wire.  This  serves  to  keep  the  curb  to  place  while 
the  process  of  filling  is  progressing.  The  reviewer  criticises  this  as 
smacking  too  much  of  the  gardener.  The  suggestion  is  made  that 
a  "  fish-tail "  rod  screwed  into  an  enlargement  of  the  ribs  at  the 
joints  in;the  curb,  and  buried  in  a  small  mass  of  concrete,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  3,  would  be  more  in  accordance  with  sound  ideas  of  con- 
struction. 


FIG.  3. 

The  reviewer  considers  the  curb  as  one  well  worthy  of  investi- 
gation and  trial,  and  we  would  add  that  with  such  improvements  as 
experience  may  suggest  it  may  be  worthy  of  introduction  in  locali- 
ties where  good  stone  for  curbs  is  not  obtainable. 

AN    ARTIFICIAL    STONE    FOR    STREET    CURBS,    ETC.,    USED    AT    GALES- 
BURG,    ILL.* 

From  an  engineer  traveling  in  the  West  we  learn  that  in  some  of 
the  Western  States  no  stone  can  be  obtained  near  by  suitable  for 
street  curbs,  rendering  it  often  necessary  to  transport  material  a  long 
distance  for  this  purpose,  or  pave  the  street  without  curbs.  When 
recently  in  Galesburg,  III.,  he  noticed  a  method  there  in  use  which 
may  be  of  interest  to  some  of  our  readers,  and  which  he  thus 
describes  : 

Ohio  stone  is  used  to  some  extent  for  curbing,  but  has  a  rough  appear- 
ance. The  best  material  used  is  known  as  Asbestine  Building  Stone,  and 
is  prepared  of  German  Portland  cement,  sand  and  broken  stone. 

The  dimensions  of  each  piece  of  this  curb  are  uniform,  having  a  length 
of  4  feet,  and  in  section  6  inches  at  bottom  and  5-^  inches  at  top,  with  the 
two  upper  edges  rounded.  The  ends  are  fitted  to  make  a  close  joint,  with 
mortise  and  tenon  molded  in  the  material. 

The  material  forming  this  curb  is  rammed  into  wooden  molds,  the 
molds  being  made  in  sections,  permitting  them  to  be  easily  removed  when 
the  material  has  set ;  the  usual  time  allowed  for  this  purpose  is  nine  days, 
the  curb  being  fit  for  use  in  a  few  days  after. 

*xx,  231. 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS.  189 

The  inner  face  of  the  mold  is  varnished  to  prevent  the  material  from 
adhering  to  the  wood.  No  broken  stone  is  visible  on  either  face  of  this 
curb,  it  therefore  has  the  appearance,  when  set,  of  fine  axed  natural  stone. 

Narrow  strips  of  wood,  one  inch  in  thickness,  are  laid  on  the  bottom  of 
the  trench  on  which  the  curbing  is  set  to  keep  the  grade  line  uniform  ; 
wood  is  used  for  this  purpose  as  there  is  no  suitable  stone  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. 

This  curb  is  furnished  and  set  for  fifty  cents  per  lineal  foot.  It  is 
manufactured  by  W.  H.  Walburn,  of  Galesburg,  111. 

SIDEWALKS. 

FOOTPATHS   IN    ENGLAND.* 

We  interrupt  our  description  of  the  pavements  of  Liverpool  to 
notice  a  paper  entitled  "  Footpaths "  (sidewalks),  by  H.  Percy 
Boulnois,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Borough  Engineer  of  Portsmouth,  which 
is  of  interest  in  connection  with  this  series. 

Government  Requirements. — The  paper  first  remarks  on  the  pro- 
portion between  the  widths  of  footways  and  carriageways  adopted  by 
the  Local  Government  Board.  The  requirement  is  that  every  new 
street  shall  have  a  carriageway  at  least  twenty-four  feet  wide,  with  a 
footpath  each  side  "  of  a  width  not  less  than  one-sixth  of  the  width 
of  such  street,"  (meaning,  as  is  explained,  one-sixth  of  the  width  of 
the  carriageway).  The  width  of  roadway  should  be,  if  possible, 
some  multiple  of  eight  feet,  "  since  this  is  the  allowance  of  vehicles 
passing  each  other  at  a  rapid  rate." 

The  gutters  at  each  side  to  be  not  less  than  three  inches  deep, 
or  more  than  seven  inches.  Curbs  to  be  set  on  "  clean  sharp  bal- 
last," and  well  rammed. 

Materials. — The  materials  used  for  footpaths  may  be  classified 
as:  (i)  Natural  stones;  (2)  Natural  asphalts;  (3)  Artificial  asphalts 
and  concretes  ;  (4)  Brick  ;  (5)  Gravel  and  stone  chippings. 

Requirements. — The  requirements  of  a  good  covering  for  side- 
walk are  that  it  shall  not  be  slippery  and  shall  not  scale  or  flake.  It 
must  be  durable,  not  easily  abraded,  strong,  of  uniform  quality,  dry 
rapidly  after  rain,  and  dust  should  not  readily  adhere  to  it.  Its 
absorbent  powers  should  be  tested.  Its  quality  will  also  be  in  a 
measure  indicated  by  its  microscopic  appearance  and  specific  gravity. 
Its  wearing  qualities  may  be  tested  by  rubbing  and  drilling,  but 
better  by  actual  test  under  a  known  traffic. 

Natural  Stones. — Of  natural  stones  granite  is  durable,  but  wears 
very  slippery,  is  difficult  to  work,  and  is  expensive. 

Yorkshire  flags  are  much  more  largely  used.  They  are  readily 
cut,  do  not  wear  smooth,  and  are  never  slippery  from  wear.  They 


IpO  CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 

are  more  liable  to  breakage,  absorb  considerable  moisture,  and  tend 
to  laminate  when  exposed  to  frost.  (The  same  is  true  of  many  of 
our  American  flagstones.)  The  wear  under  heavy  traffic  in  the  city 
of  London  was  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  per  year,  and  this  is 
given  as  the  rate  in  the  Strand  for  every  9,000,000  foot-passengers. 

Slate  wears  very  slippery  ;  most  of  the  freestones  are  too  soft ; 
and  some  of  the  limestones  are  very  brittle  and  very  slippery. 

Natural  Asphalts. — Of  natural  asphalts,  that  is  recommended 
which  contains  about  7  per  cent,  of  bitumen,  and,  where  possible, 
that  it  should  not  be  laid  except  by  the  compressed  method.  The 
"mastic  "  (which  contains  more  bitumen)  is  considered  only  "suita- 
ble for  broad  paths  with  light  traffic."  The  former  should  not  be  laid 
of  less  than  i -inch  thickness,  and  the  latter  of  |-inch;  it  being  essen- 
tial that  a  foundation  of  cement  concrete  three  inches  thick  be  first 
provided,  "  as  asphalt  is  like  a  mineral  leather  or  elastic  skin,  and 
has  no  strength  in  itself,  but  acts  solely  as  a  cover  to  the  concrete," 
which  actually  carries  the  traffic.  u  It  is  almost  impervious  to 
moisture,  and  is  the  best  pavement  that  can  be  used  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view."  In  Birmingham  it  requires  relaying  every  five  or  six 
years,  and  compressed  asphalt  paths  have  lasted  ten  years  in  some 
of  the  busiest  thoroughfares  in  London.  In  Leicester,  mastic  paths 
(uncompressed)  have  lasted  fifteen  years.  Under  considerable  traffic  it 
is  estimated  by  the  author  that  compressed  asphalt  one  inch  thick 
will  last  twelve  years. 

Artificial  Asphalts  and  Concretes. — Of  artificial  pitch  mastics  the 
composition  of  one  of  the  first  used  is  given  as  50  parts  waste 
products  of  tar-oil,  20  of  caustic  lime,  200  of  pitch,  30  of  sawdust^ 
and  700  of  iron  slag,  grit,  or  chalk  ;  the  materials  being  simply 
mixed,  spread  in  layers,  and  rolled.  Another  laid  in  1840  was 
Stockholm  tar  three  parts,  chalk  two  parts,  and  sand  one  part,  boiled 
together  and  spread  hot. 

One  of  the  best  modern  mixtures  is  of  gravel  or  stone  chippings 
screened  to  the  several  sizes,  passing  through  sieves  of  i^-inch> 
f-inch,  I -inch,  and  J-inch  mesh,  and  heated  on  iron  plates  ;  when 
dried  and  thoroughly  heated,  the  following  mixture  was  made  and 
well-boiled  :  12  gallons  of  tar,  56  pounds  of  pitch,  and  two  gallons 
of  creosote,  this  quantity,  while  still  hot,  being  added  to  about  a  ton 
of  the  hot  screened  materials.  A  thin  layer  of  the  largest  material 
is  laid  first  and  rolled  by  a  £-ton  roller,  and  the  others  similarly  in 
succession,  the  finest  on  top.  The  chippings  make  the  best  pave- 
ment. The  foundation  must  be  dry,  and  the  pavement  is  best  laid 
*'  in  the  spring  or  winter,  if  dry,  as  a  hot  sun  draws  the  composition 
away  from  the  stone  on  to  the  surface  of  the  path."  The  surface 
should  be  dusted  over  with  fine  grit  or  stone- dust,  "  and  this  facing, 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS.  19 1 

accompanied  by  a  thin  '  painting '  with  tar,  should  be  repeated  at 
least  every  other  year." 

The  life  of  these  pavements  is  given  variously  at  from  five  to 
twenty  years.  The  disadvantages  named  are  its  dark  color,  its  wear- 
ing gritty  and  bumpy,  and  its  "rather  difficult  repair."  In  very  hot 
weather  it  becomes  sticky  or  soft.  "  Tar  pavement  must  only  be 
reckoned  as  a  substitute  for  ordinary  graveled  footpaths.  It  must 
not  be  compared  with  paved  or  asphalted  paths."  It  is  largely  used 
for  suburban  footpaths. 

Monolithic  pavements  of  Portland  cement  concrete  are  gaining 
in  favor,  "  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  pavement  of  the  future," 
and  these  when  properly  laid,  with  joints  at  about  six  feet  intervals, 
are  found  to  be  very  durable.  Shingle  or  gravel  does  not  work  so 
well  as  crushed  granite,  since  the  former  is  apt  to  become  dislodged 
or  else  protrude  and  make  a  rough  surface.  A  bottom  layer,  2 1 
inches  thick,  of  one  part  Portland  cement  to  six  parts  shingle  or 
stone,  with  a  |-inch  layer  on  top  of  one  part  cement  to  two  parts 
finely  broken  and  well-washed  granite,  are  recommended.  Great 
cleanliness  and  care  in  mixing  are  needed,  with  thorough  ramming 
of  the  concrete  and  troweling  of  the  surface.  Traffic  should  be  kept 
off  until  it  is  thoroughly  set  by  a  covering  with  boards  for  a  fort- 
night, and  afterward  by  a  covering  of  wet  sand.  This  description 
of  pavement  is  rather  slippery  and  should  have  a  light  cross-fall. 
It  may  be  molded  in  blocks  and  laid  in  this  form  if  desirable.  After 
the  upper  surface  is  worn  these  can  be  turned  and  will  present  a 
fresh  wearing-surface. 

Brick. — Brick  pavements  are  undesirable  on  account  of  the 
multiplicity  of  joints  and  their  consequent  insanitary  character,  their 
harshness  to  the  foot,  and  the  necessity  for  a  concrete  foundation  to 
keep  them  level.  Special  vitrified  bricks  have  a  life  under  heavy 
traffic  of  thirty  years  and  upward.  Gravel  and  similar  materials  are 
only  desirable  for  cheapness. 

In  conclusion  the  author  states  that  "asphalt  has  suffered ' in 
repute  because  inferior  materials  have  been  used  under  that  name. 
Tar  pavement  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  gravel  paths,  and  is  a 
good  pavement  for  light  traffic.  Concrete,  monolithic,  and  flagged 
pavements  are  every  day  gaining  in  favor  and  have  much  to  recom- 
mend them." 

Comments  on  Mr.  Boulnois*  Paper. — We  wish  to  remark,  by  way 
of  comment  on  the  proportion  between  width  of  roadway  and  side- 
walk given  in  the  paper,  that,  while  it  might  be  an  advisable  one  in 
streets  almost  entirely  devoted  to  wheel  traffic,  it  should  not  be 
adopted  in  other  localities.  In  towns  of  moderate  dimensions  where 
are  planted  the  most  pleasing  results  will  be  obtained 


IQ2  CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 

with  the  walks  nearly  or  quite  one-half  the  width  of  the  roadway, 
and  even  in  busy  streets  it  will  be  found  that  about  one-third, 
exclusive  of  stoops  or  other  projections,  is  not  too  great  a  width  for 
the  sidewalks. 

With  the  necessity  in  this  latitude  for  providing  for  heavy  snows 
the  depth  of  gutter  mentioned  is  too  small.  The  general  rule  holds 
good  that  the  better  the  surface  of  a  roadway  the  less  crown  is 
required  to  carry  water  to  the  gutters.  The  experience  of  the  pres- 
ent writer  on  streets  with  a  graveled  surface  where  the  longitudinal 
fall  obtainable  was  from  o.i  of  a  foot  to  0.2  of  a  foot  per  100  feet 
was  that  a  crown  of  18  inches  on  a  roadway  40  feet  wide,  reducing 
to  i  foot  on  one  20  feet  wide,  on  newly  made  streets,  was  not  objection- 
able in  use  and  became  rapidly  less  from  wear.  On  the  contrary, 
crowns  of  about  6  inches  are  quite  sufficient  on  well-paved  streets 
which  are  kept  clean  and  in  good  surface. 

It  is  a  very  common  fault  to  give  too  steep  a  cross-slope  to  flag 
and  other  footpaths.  The  sole  object  of  this  slope  is  to  carry  water 
to  the  gutter.  Since  the  surface  is  required  by  municipal  ordinances 
to  be  kept  clean  from  snow,  there  is  sure  to  be  at  times  a  thin  coat- 
ing of  ice  formed  upon  it,  and  under  such  circumstances  a  cross- 
slope  of  |-inch  per  foot  becomes  dangerous  to  passengers.  It  will 
be  found  in  practice  that  J-inch  per  foot  will  give  the  most  satisfac- 
tory results.  In  comparing  practice  in  our  cities  with  that  abroad 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  much  greater  care  is  usually  exer- 
cised there  to  obtain  accuracy  of  alignment  and  smoothness  and  per- 
fection of  surface  ;  also,  that  much  greater  attention  is  paid  to  keep- 
ing the  surface  in  repair.  We  may  well  take  a  lesson  from  them  in 
this  important  matter. 

ASPHALT    AND    CONCRETE    FOOT    PAVEMENTS.* 

The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  draw  the  criticism  of  the  members 
of  the  association  upon  the  experiments  and  experience  of  the  writer 
and  others,  on  asphalt  and  concrete  as  materials  for  foot-pavements, 
and,  if  possible,  to  induce  others  to  carry  forward  experiments  with 
a  view  to  perfecting  the  use  of  these  pavements. 

The  writer  desires  to  place  in  the  forefront  of  the  paper  the  fact 
that  the  credit  of  the  Hornsey  experiments  herein  referred  to  is  due 
to  Mr.  T.  de  Courcey  Meade,  A.  M.  I.  C.  E.,  who  most  readily 
placed  them  at  the  disposal  of  the  writer  for  this  paper;  and  also  his 
obligations  to  the  French  Asphalt  Company,  the  Val  de  Travers 
Asphalt  Company,  the  Imperial  Stone  Company,  and  others,  for  the 

*A  paper  by  George  R.  Strachan,  A.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  of  Chelsea,  Lon- 
don, S.  W.,  read  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  of  Municipal  and 
Sanitary  Engineers  at  Leicester,  July,  1887.  xvi,  266. 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS.  193 

information  given.  Every  pavement  described  has  been  personally 
examined  by  the  writer,  and  the  exact  locality  of  each  is  stated,  so 
that  any  one  may  examine  them  for  his  own  information. 

Asphalt,  its  Nature  and  Occurrence. — Asphalt,  properly  so  called, 
is  a  natural  compound  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  bitumen,  and  is 
found  principally  in  volcanic  areas.  Men  of  erudition  have  asserted 
that  it  was  the  "pitch"  used  to  make  the  Ark  watertight,  and  that 
it  was  the  "slime"  used  as  a  mortar  in  the  construction  of  the  Tower 
of  Babel  and  the  city  of  Babylon.  If  such  ancient  uses  of  this  sub- 
stance are  facts,  its  virtues  were  strangely  lost  sight  of  in  the  inter- 
vening centuries,  for  it  is  not  till  1700,  A.  D.,  that  its  use  became 
common.  It  was  then  used  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  "  balm  " 
from  its  beds,  which  was  used  for  medical  purposes  and  was  credited 
with  superior  healing  powers.  The  origin  of  the  asphalt  beds  has 
given  rise  to  much  speculation.  A  Swiss  geologist  has  made  an 
effort  to  explain  their  formation  in  a  striking  manner.  Starting  from 
the  observation  that  all  organic  matter  exudes  bitumen  in  decom- 
posing, he  suggests  that  the  beds  are  the  remains  of  huge  banks  of 
oysters,  the  shells  of  which  furnished  the  carbonate  of  lime,  and  the 
oysters  themselves  furnished  the  bitumen.  As  the  asphalt  beds  are 
in  some  cases  27  feet  thick,  and  their  areas  are  measured  by  square 
miles,  it  is  evident  that  oysters  were  plentiful  in  those  days. 

The  works  of  the  French  Asphalt  Company  are  described,  as 
that  company  has  executed  all  the  asphalt  works  in  Chelsea;  but  the 
writer  wishes  to  say  that  the  Val  de  Travers  Company,  Claridge's 
Asphalt  Company,  and  others,  do  equally  good  work. 

The  mines  of  the  French  Asphalt  Company,  from  which  their 
English  supply  of  asphalt  is  obtained,  are  situated  at  St.  Ambroix,  in 
the  south  of  France.  The  asphalt  is  in  seams,  which  lie  nearly  hori- 
zontal, and  which  have  their  faults,  bends,  etc.,  like  coal  seams.  The 
bed  and  roof  of  the  seams  are  of  pure  carbonate  of  lime  rock,  pre- 
sumably the  same  as  that  of  which  the  asphalt  is  largely  composed. 
The  seams  vary  from  three  to  five  feet  in  thickness,  and  are  worked 
by  drifts  from  the  outcrop  on  the  hillside.  The  rock  is  mined  by 
blasting  and  hand  labor,  and  comes  from  the  drifts  in  pieces  meas- 
uring one  cubic  foot  and  downwards.  The  asphalt  then  has  a  very 
dark  chocolate  color,  and  appears  to  be  a  tough  homogeneous  sub- 
stance, with  striations  of  white  matter  running  through  it  parallel  to 
its  natural  bed,  which  are  probably  narrow  seams  of  carbonate  of 
]ime.  When  it  is  exposed  to  a  hot  sun  the  surface  will  glisten  with 
small  fatty  beads  of  bitumen,  but  at  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  dry. 
After  exposure  to  the  air  the  surface  turns  a  dull  white  color,  owing 
to  the  evaporation  of  the  bitumen;  but  this  Change  is  only  skin  deep. 
The  rock  is  conveyed  to  Marseilles  just  as  it  leaves  the  mine,  and  is 


i94 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 


shipped  to  England.  Formerly  the  beds  of  asphalt  yielded  a  supply 
of  natural  bitumen,  but  twenty  years  ago  the  supply  ceased,  owing- 
it  is  believed,  to  some  widespread  cause,  as  several  mines  were 
affected  in  the  same  way  at  that  time. 

Preparation. — At  the  depot  of  the  company  at  Stratford,  the 
rock  as  delivered  by  ship  is  passed  through  a  crusher  which  acts  like 
a  Blake's  crusher,  save  that  the  solid  jaw  is  replaced  by  a  series  of 
knives,  and  by  which  it  is  reduced  to  pieces  not  exceeding  three 
inches  in  length.  The  pieces  are  poured  into  a  Carr's  disintegrator, 
which  has  spindles  revolving  800  times  a  minute  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, and  which  reduces  the  asphalt  to  powder.  The  powder  is 
screened  through  a  rotatory  cylindrical  sieve  (144  to  the  square  inch) 
and  is  then  stored  in  sacks.  The  asphalt  varies  in  the  proportion 
of  bitumen  it  contains.  The  richer  parts  are  ground  and  stored 
separately  from  the  other,  and  are  afterwards  mixed  in  suitable  pro- 
portions for  the  particular  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  applkd. 

Composition. — The  following  are  analyses  of  asphalt  rock  of 
average  richness  at  this  stage : 


No.  i  Sample. 

No.  2  Sample. 

Average. 

Bitumen     

I©  70 

10.60 

IO  65 

Carbonate  of  lime  

88.05 

88.15 

88.10 

Silica 

o  55 

o  4.0 

o  4.8 

Alumina 

O    IO 

015 

O    12 

Peroxide  of  iron             .   . 

O.2O 

O    IO 

o  15 

Moisture  

O.4O 

o  60 

o.  50 

IOO.OO 

IOO.OO 

100.00 

Making  the  Foothpath. — When  the  asphalt  is  about  to  be  used, 
the  powder  is  poured  into  revolving  roasters,  and  roasted  for  three 
hours  at  a  temperature  of  280°  Fahr.,  during  which  operation  the 
moisture  is  driven  off.  As  the  asphalt  chars  at  320°  Fahr.,  care  has 
to  be  exercised  as  to  the  proper  temperature.  It  is  loaded  direct 
from  the  roasters  into  carts  lined  with  sheet-iron,  covered  with  hemp 
cloths,  and  thus  protected  it  retains  its  heat  till  it  is  taken  to  the  site 
where  it  has  to  be  laid.  It  is  carried  from  the  carts  in  baskets, 
spread  over  the  foundation  by  means  of  a  rake  and  rammed  solid  by 
a  series  of  blows  from  heavy  heated  rammers.  The  surface  is  ironed 
by  a  heated  iron,  which  draws  bitumen  to  the  top,  and  in  a  few  hours 
it  is  ready  for  traffic.  This  form  of  asphalt  is  known  as  compressed 
asphalt,  and  is  the  form  always  used  for  carriageways  and  frequently 
for  footways. 

Mastic  Asphalt. — The  other  form  of  asphalt  is  known  as  mastic 
asphalt,  and  is  a  manufactured  compound  made  up  of  natural  as- 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS.  IQ5 

phalt,  artificial  bitumen,  and  grit.  The  asphalt  is  reduced  to  a 
powder  as  described.  The  artificial  bitumen  is  used  because  of  the 
scanty  supply  of  natural  bitumen.  Its  principal  component  is  Trini- 
dad pitch,  to  which  is  added  from  five  to  seven  per  cent,  of  shale 
oil.  The  mixture  is  boiled  for  twenty-four  hours;  the  top  liquid  is 
ladled  out,  and  is  the  artificial  bitumen.  It  is  a  soft,  viscous,  black 
substance  which  softens  under  the  sun's  rays.  Its  quality  is  tested 
by  taking  a  piece  between  the  fingers  and  drawing  it  out  to  a  string; 
if  it  does  not  snap  until  drawn  out  very  fine  it  is  of  good  quality. 
The  grit  is  obtained  from  B  ridgeport,  is  wholly  composed  of  flint, 
very  clean,  and  the  pieces  do  not  exceed  -J-inch  in  size. 

Its  Preparation  and  Use.— The  mastic  asphalt  is  prepared  as 
follows :  From  5  to  7  per  cent,  of  artificial  bitumen,  from  20 
to  30  per  cent,  of  grit,  and  the  balance  in  powdered  asphalt  are 
placed  in  a  covered  caldron  and  heated  for  four  or  five  hours.  The 
mixture  liquefies  at  280°  Fahr.  to  300°  Fahr.  If  it  is  to  be  used  near 
the  works  (within  ten  miles),  it  is  run  into  locomobiles  (boilers  on 
wheels),  with  a  fire  under  them,  and  drawn  to  the  site.  When  it  is 
used,  it  should  be  hot  enough  to  vaporize  a  drop  of  water.  It  is 
carried  in  pails  and  spread  over  the  foundation  by  means  of.  a  float^ 
Silver  sand  is  then  spread  sparingly  over  the  surface  and  rubbed  in 
by  floats.  In  six  hours  the  footway  is  ready  for  traffic.  One  ton  of 
asphalt  covers  20  square  yards  when  laid  one  inch  thick. 

When  mastic  asphalt  is  to  be  laid  at  a  distance  from  the  works 
instead  of  running  it  from  the  caldrons  into  the  locomobiles  it  is  run 
into  molds,  and  molded  into  flat  cylindrical  pieces  weighing  about 
56  pounds  each.  These  are  taken  to  the  site,  placed  in  a  caldron, 
from  3  to  4  per  cent,  of  additional  bitumen  added  to  make  up  for  the 
loss  by  evaporation,  and  heat  applied  to  reduce  it  to  a  liquid  con- 
dition. The  laying  is  then  performed  in  the  same  manner  as  before 
described. 

This  description  may  be  taken  as  applicable  to  the  method 
adopted  by  the  Val  de  Travers  Company,  with  a  few  variations  in 
the  proportions  used. 

Analyses  of  Rock  Asphalts. — The  following  analyses  of  asphalts 
are  of  interest,  as  they  are  those  of  rocks  of  average  richness- 


Val  de  Travers  Co. 

French  Asphalt  Co. 

Bitumen  .  .         ....        

9.75 

10.65 

Carbonate  of  lime  etc 

80.75 

88.85 

Moisture                    

.  5O 

.  50 

100.00 

100.00 

196 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 


The  following  analyses,  in  a  different  form,  were  placed  at  the 
writer's  disposal  by  Mr.  Mead.e. 


VAL  DE 
TRAVERS. 

FRENCH 
ASPHALT  Co. 

M 

8 
ti 

S£<i> 
o  g-tf 

£g's 

From 
Hornsey 
Lane. 

SS-d 

O  O  Cfi 

&lx 

0 

0.4 
6.0 
16.9 

76.7 

n4 

o 
o 
M 

Silica 

0.6 
5.8 
13.0 
80.6 

o.5 

5-8 
9-8 
83.9 

0.3 
6.5 
13.6 
79.6 

0-4 

8.2 

16.8 
74.6 

Volatile  organic  matters  (tar,  oils,  etc.).  .  . 
N  on-  volatile  organic  matters            

Lime,  etc  

100.  0 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

IOO.O 

This  detailed  description  and  the  numerous  analyses  of  good 
asphalts  have  been  given,  so  that  spurious  asphalts  may  be  avoided. 

Traffic — Durability. — In  Chelsea  there  are  i6£  miles  of  foot- 
ways paved  with  mastic  asphalt,  having  an  area  of  68,290  square 
yards.  On  the  Queen's  Park  Estate  there  are  41,500  square  yards, 
which  have  been  laid  five  years,  and  which  are  now  in  good  con- 
dition, not  having  cost  one  penny  for  repairs.  In  King's  Road,  at 
Walpole  Street,  a  length  has  been  laid  for  seven  years.  The  foot 
traffic  over  it  is  7,500  persons  in  eighteen  hours.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  five  years  it  was  cut  open,  and  the  wear  was  found  to  be  such 
as  had  reduced  the  thickness  to  a  spare  -J  of  an  inch,  the  original 
thickness  being  i  inch  full.  On  the  east  side  of  New  Bond  Street 
a  length  of  mastic  asphalt  was  laid  thirteen  years  ago  between  Ox- 
ford Street  and  Conduit  Street,  the  thickness  being  f  of  an  inch. 
The  asphalt  is  now  wearing  through  on  to  the  concrete  in  the  line  of 
traffic  at  the  forecourt  line.  The  cost  for  repairs  has  been  so  trifling 
that  it  may  be  neglected.  In  this  case  the  concrete  foundation  is 
as  sound  as  before,  and  all  that  is  necessary  to  restore  the  footway 
is  to  relay  the  asphalt  at  about  two-thirds  of  the  original  cost,  when 
the  pavement  will  be  good  for  another  thirteen  years.  As  the  traffic 
here  is  very  severe  and  the  footway  narrow,  it  is  reliable  evidence  of 
the  durability  of  asphalt. 

Foundation. — The  foundation  of  the  asphalt  footway  is  made 
with  3  inches  of  Portland  cement  concrete  (6  to  i)  of  very  good 
quality.  The  surface  is  smoothed  with  the  shovel,  and  four  days 
are  allowed  for  drying.  The  concrete  has  been  laid  hitherto  without 
any  joints.  The  mastic  asphalt  is  floated  over  the  surface,  and  the 
path  is  then  completed.  Mastic  asphalt  does  not  show  any  cracks 
on  the  surface.  The  concrete  foundation,  when  the  asphalt  is  re- 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS.  197 

moved,  shows  the  regular  tree-like  cracks  all  along  its  length, 
branching  from  the  kerb  to  the  back  line,  but  the  elasticity  of  the 
mastic  asphalt  is  sufficient  to  resist  the  tearing  action  of  the  concrete 
as  it  contracts. 

Expansion  and  Contraction  of  Concrete. — A  study  of  the  asphalt 
question  resolves  itself  principally  into  a  study  of  the  movements  of 
concrete  when  laid  in  long  lengths,  narrow  widths,  and  small  thick- 
nesses. The  writer  inclines  to  the  opinion  that  concrete  has  in  itself 
a  small  power  of  contraction,  apart  from  any  considerations  of  tem- 
perature. The  experiments  of  Dyckerhoff,  which  show  that  neat 
cement  (slow-setting)  had  an  average  expansive  power  over  twelve 
months  of  .0734  per  cent,  and  quick-setting  cements  of  .2019  per  cent., 
and  that  concrete  (3  to  i,  sand)  had  an  expansive  power  of  .0264  per 
cent,  (slow-setting)  and  .0320  per  cent,  (quick-setting),  seem  to  show 
the  contrary  to  be  the  case.  The  writer  laid  down  a  length  of  con- 
crete (6  to  i,  ballast),  52  feet  long,  12  inches  wide  and  3  inches  thick, 
under  a  shed  which  had  an  open  front,  but  so  that  the  sun  did  not 
touch  the  concrete.  The  strip  was  laid  on  sand  so  as  to  give  it 
freedom  of  movement.  Another  strip  26  feet  long,  of  the  same 
width  and  thickness  (3  to  i,  pebbles),  and  a  third  of  the  same  dimen- 
sions (3  to  i,  sand),  were  also  laid  under  the  same  conditions.  The 
only  movement  discernible,  at  the  end  of  one  month,  was  a  slight 
contraction  in  length  in  all  the  samples.  The  uniform  experience  of 
concretes  under  asphalt  is  that  cracks  occur,  which  would  tend  to 
show  that  contraction  and  not  expansion  is  the  rule.  At  the  same 
time,  the  writer  has  experience  that  concretes  do  expand,  but  this  he 
attributes  to  the  action  of  temperature.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing 
to  see  the  surface  of  an  asphalt  path  raised  crosswise  in  an  irregular 
line,  as  though  a  small  tree  root  was  under  it.  In  every  case  where 
the  asphalt  has  been  uncovered  at  these  points  by  the  writer,  he  has 
found  the  concrete  crushed  and  the  concrete  on  the  falling  level 
thrusting  itself  under  the  concrete  on  the  rising  level.  This  effect  is 
most  marked  on  hot  days.  In  January  last  the  writer  laid  some 
thousands  of  feet  of  asphalt  path  in  St.  Luke's  Gardens,  Chelsea. 
The  sun  is  on  it  all  day,  and  during  the  hot  weather  at  the  beginning 
of  June,  the  number  and  size  of  these  raised  lines  was  astonishing. 
Shortly  after  midday  they  were  most  pronounced,  and  towards  night 
they  were  less  prominent.  As  a  further  evidence  of  the  expansion 
of  concrete  under  the  sun's  rays  the  streets  in  the  city  can  be  named. 
The  footway  and  carriageway  are  in  asphalt  on  concrete.  The  ex- 
pansion of  the  concrete  in  the  carriageway  presses  the  kerb  at  the 
bottom  ;  the  expansion  of  the  concrete  in  the  footway  presses  the 
kerb  at  the  top  on  the  opposite  side,  and  the  two  have  tilted  up  the 
kerb  in  a  marked  manner.  The  writer  has  on  a  hot  day  taken  up 


198  CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 

asphalt  on  a  footway  and  has  found  the  heat  much  greater  under  the 
asphalt  than  on  the  surface.  In  order  to  avoid  the  expansion  show- 
ing itself  in  footways  the  concrete  should  be  laid  in  sections,  and  the 
joints  between  them  filled  with  some  compressible  substance. 

Compressed  Asphalt.  Cracks. — Compressed  asphalt  has  about 
one-third  longer  life  than  mastic  asphalt  under  the  same  conditions. 
The  cost  is  the  same,  but  the  use  of  compressed  asphalt  for  this  pur- 
pose has  not  been  universally  followed  by  reason  of  the  cracks  that 
appear  on  its  surface.  The  cracks  do  not  tend  to  spread  under 
traffic,  nor  does  the  asphalt  wear  more  at  these  parts  than  at  others. 
They  are  unsightly,  however.  It  is  found  that  these  cracks  are  ex- 
actly of  the  shape  and  in  the  position  of  the  cracks  in  the  concrete 
foundation.  Compressed  asphalt  has  no  elasticity  in  itself,  and 
when  subjected  to  the  contracting  force  of  the  concrete  it  is  torn 
through.  It  is  an  admirable  tell-tale  of  the  movements  of  the  con- 
crete. Much  ingenuity  has  been  displayed  in  endeavors  to  avoid 
the  cracks.  The  first  step  was  to  localize  them.  This  was  done  by 
laying  the  concrete  in  i2-feet  bays  and  in  alternate  bays,  and  filling 
up  the  screed  space  with  fine  concrete.  The  contraction  then 
showed  its  effects  at  these  places,  with  a  result  that  a  series  of  regu- 
lar straight  cracks  appeared  instead  of  the  irregular  tree-like  cracks 
when  the  concrete  was  laid  in  one  piece.  These  effects  can  be  seen 
at  many  places  in  London  without  specifying  any  particular  place. 
Having  localized  the  cracks,  an  experiment  was  made  at  Hornsey  to 
avoid  them.  A  strip  of  bituminous  felt  six  inches  in  width  and 
24 -inch  thick  was  placed  on  the  concrete  over  the  whole  length  of 
the  screed  mark.  This  felt  has  much  elasticity,  and  the  object  of 
the  experiment  was  to  ascertain  whether  it  would  take  up  the  con- 
tracting movement  of  the  concrete  and  absorb  it.  The  length  is 
laid  at  Crouch  Hall  Road,  between  Coolhurst  Road  and  Clifton 
Road.  The  result  has  been  that  instead  of  one  crack  at  each  screed 
mark  there  are  two,  one  on  each  side  of  the  narrow  strip  of  felt.  It 
is  evident  that  the  concrete  in  contracting  compresses  the  asphalt 
longitudinally,  and  that  the  cracks  appear  at  the  points  where  the  op- 
posing motions  meet ;  and  as  the  strip  of  felt  represented  a  narrow 
area  which  was  free  from  these  forces  a  crack  appeared  on  each  side 
where  the  forces  took  effect. 

In  Archway  Road,  Hornsey,  another  experiment  was  made  by 
covering  the  screed  mark  with  a  strip  of  mastic  asphalt  nine  inches 
in  width  and  J-inch  thick,  just  as  in  the  last  case  with  felt.  For 
three  months  no  cracks  appeared  ;  then  a  few  slowly  and  at  irregular 
intervals  showed  themselves  ;  but  during  the  severe  winter  of  1886-7 
every  screed  mark  showed  its  crack.  These  cracks  were  irregular 
in  line,  but  they  are  confined  in  each  case  to  the  area  covered  by 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS.  199 

the  mastic  asphalt.  These  footways  are  laid  on  a  3-inch  foundation 
of  concrete.  In  Marlborough  Road,  Chelsea,  an  experiment  was 
made  on  different  lines.  A  foundation  of  concrete  six  inches  thick 
was  laid,  and  the  compressed  asphalt  laid  on  it.  For  four  months 
no  cracks  appeared,  but  after  that  time  they  occurred  at  frequent 
intervals,  though  they  are  fewer  than  usually  appear  on  a  3-inch 
foundation.  When  the  asphalt  and  concrete  were  removed  at  the 
cracks  it  was  found  that  the  crack  extended  through  the  whole 
thickness  of  the  concrete.  This  experiment  was  based  on  the 
observation  that  cracks  do  not  appear  in  compressed  asphalt  car- 
riageways, and  as  the  principal  difference  between  the  foundations 
in  the  footways  and  carriageways  is  the  thickness  of  the  concrete, 
it  was  assumed  that  it  was  the  cause.  The  observation  is,  however, 
an  incomplete  one.  In  streets  of  light  traffic  the  cracks  do  appear 
in  the  asphalt,  as  in  Little  Blenheim  Street,  Chelsea,  and  elsewhere. 
In  streets  of  heavy  traffic  the  cracks  in  the  concrete  tear  the  asphalt 
as  they  slowly  form,  but  the  traffic  welds  the  asphalt  together  again 
before  they  show  on  the  surface.  In  footways  of  heavy  traffic  there 
are  fewer  cracks  than  in  those  of  light  traffic,  for  a  similar  reason. 
At  Muswell  Hill,  Hornsey,  the  experiment  of  covering  the  whole 
area  of  the  footway  between  Onslow  Rise  and  Grosvenor  Gardens 
with  bituminous  felt  was  tried.  The  felt  was  in  3-feet  widths,  and 
was  laid  longitudinally  with  butt  joints.  At  the  circular  kerb  the 
pieces  were  necessarily  somewhat  patched.  The  result  has  been 
that  cracks  have  appeared  at  every  joint  of  the  felt  with  mar- 
velous fidelity,  owing  to  the  movement  of  the  concrete.  In  White- 
head's  Grove,  Chelsea,  between  Marlborough  Road  and  Keppel 
Street,  on  the  north  side,  a  length  was  laid  in  1885  on  a  3-inch  con- 
crete foundation,  which  was  covered  with  mastic  asphalt  J-inch  in 
thickness.  On  this  J-inch  of  compressed  asphalt  is  laid.  The 
mastic  asphalt  was  laid  to  absorb  by  its  elasticity  the  movement  of 
the  concrete  without  transmitting  it  to  the  compressed  asphalt.  It 
has  survived  two  winters  of  great  severity,  and  has  lived  twenty-one 
months  without  any  cracks  appearing.  From  this  it  would  appear 
that  the  principle  of  a  material  between  the  concrete  and  the  com- 
pressed asphalt  which  will  absorb  the  effects  of  the  movements  of 
the  concrete  is  a  correct  one,  and  the  writer  invites  the  members  of 
the  association  to  experiment  on  cheapening  the  method.  The 
present  result  is  an  increase  of  life  of  33  per  cent,  at  an  increase  of 
cost  of  12  per  cent. 

Durability. — As  evidence  of  the  durability  of  compressed 
asphalt  in  footways,  those  in  Cheapside  may  be  mentioned.  They 
were  laid  in  1876  at  a  thickness  of  i  inch,  and  are  now  wearing 
through.  On  the  south  side  of  the  Strand  east  of  Wellington 


20O  CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 

Street  i  inch  of  compressed  asphalt  was  laid  in  1881,  and  has  had 
only  the  most  trifling  repairs.  The  streets  in  the  city  with  the 
heaviest  foot  traffics  in  the  world  are  paved  with  compressed  asphalt 
on  the  footways. 

Advantages  of  Asphalt. — The  advantages  of  asphalt  foot  pave- 
ments are  durability,  a  smooth  surface  unbroken  with  joints,  a  good 
foot-hold,  even  and  regular  wear,  their  impervious  character,  and  the 
readiness  and  neatness  with  which  they  are  repaired.  They  have  a 
sombre  appearance,  and  show  water  on  their  surface  longer  than 
stone  pavements.  They  wear  to  the  last  thickness  without  breaking 
up,  and  give  a  useful  wear  for  the  whole  of  their  thickness.  When 
a  stone  or  other  pavement  has  worn  i  inch  it  may  not  be  half  worn 
through,  but  its  usual  life  is  over.  Where  there  are  cellars  under 
footways,  asphalt  as  a  material  for  footways  is  unrivaled.  In 
ordinary  traffics,  such  as  those  named  in  King's  Road  (7,000  to 
8,000  persons  per  day),  an  asphalt  pavement  can  be  laid  i  inch 
thick  with  the  certainty  that  for  at  least  ten  years  it  will  need  no 
repairs  whatever.  This  pavement  has  also  the  advantage  that  the 
foundation  is  always  preserved  and  good  for  use  again  when  the 
wearing  surface  of  asphalt  has  to  be  renewed. 

Cost. — The  following  abstract  of  the  present  contract  schedule 
in  Chelsea  will  give  the  prices  for  these  pavements. 

Per  sq.  yd. 

£    *•    d. 
Compressed  or  mastic  asphalt  i  inch  in  thickness  on  3 

inches  of  concrete o  6  3 

Ditto,  ditto,  f  inch  thick o  5  6 

Compressed  asphalt  f  inch  thick  on  \  inch  of  mastic 

asphalt,  laid  on  3  inches  of  concrete o  7  o 

Compressed  or  mastic  asphalt  i  inch  thick  on  existing 

concrete  foundation  (relay) o  3  6 

Ditto,  ditto,  f  inch  thick o  3  o 

These  prices  carry  a  guarantee  of  free  maintenance  for  ten 
years.  The  Vestry  prepares  the  foundation  for  the  concrete  in  new 
work  at  a  cost  of  2d.  per  square  yard.  The  specification  provides 
that  the  asphalt  will  be  cut  open  at  distances  not  exceeding  50  feet 
apart,  and  the  thickness  measured.  Five  out  of  every  six  of  these 
measurements  must  be  at  least  the  specified  thickness,  and  the 
average  of  every  six  must  be  at  least  the  specified  thickness.  The 
specification  is  strictly  adhered  to.  The  cost  of  the  foot  pavement 
in  New  Bond  Street,  already  referred  to,  over  twenty-six  years* 
would  be  as  follows  at  per  square  yard  : 

£    s.    d. 

Preparing  foundation o    o    2 

Laying  concrete  foundation  and  f  inch  mastic  asphalt. ...  o  5  6 
At  end  of  13  years  relaying  mastic  asphalt  (life  13  years).  030 
Repairs o  o  o 

Total..  ,088 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS   AND    TRAMWAYS.  2OI 

or  a  cost  per  year,  not  including  interest,  of  qd.  per  square  yard. 
It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  small  cost  of  renewing  asphalt  foot- 
ways is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  asphalt  taken  up  is  as  good  as  new 
asphalt  after  it  has  been  cleared  and  prepared,  and  is  re-used  for 
footways. 

Concrete  Footpaths — In  dealing  with  the  question  of  concrete  as 
a  material  for  foot  pavements,  the  writer  cannot  claim  such  an 
experience  of  it  as  he  has  had  with  asphalt.  In  1880,  however,  the 
Vestry  of  Chelsea  had  laid  by  the  respective  makers  a  series  of 
pavements  in  King's  Road  against  the  Royal  Military  Asylum  wall, 
and  in  1885  a  report  was  made  on  them  by  the  writer.  So  many 
applications  for  copies  have  been  made  that  it  is  now  out  of  print, 
and  as  applications  continue  to  be  made,  the  results  of  the  experi- 
ments are  herein  set  forth  for  the  information  of  the  Association. 

Construction. — The  writer  holds  that  a  knowledge  of  the  manu- 
facture of  these  pavements  is  useful  information,  and  therefore  he 
incorporates  a  description  of  the  manufacture  of  imperial  stone 
pavements.  The  depot  of  the  company  is  at  East  Greenwich,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Thames.  The  aggregate  used  by  the  company  is 
broken  granite.  Flint  has  been  used,  but  the  pavement  in  wear 
became  very  slippery.  Kentish  rag  has  also  been  used,  but  its  wear 
was  too  rapid.  The  granite  is  broken,  so  that  it  passes  a  ^ 
sieve.  After  screening  it  is  carefully  washed,  as  the  dust  acts  as  a 
coat  round  the  piece,  and  prevents  the  cement  laying  hold  of  the 
granite.  The  washing  machine  is  a  slanting  archimedean  screw, 
working  in  a  trough,  with  openings  in  the  thread  of  the  worm.  The 
water  is  run  in  at  the  high  end,  and  the  screened  granite  pieces  put 
in  at  the  lower.  The  screw  churns  the  pieces  over  and  over  each 
other,  and  carries  them  up  by  its  motion.  The  clean  water  meets 
the  cleanest  granite,  and  thus  the  pieces  are  not  soiled  by  the  dirty 
water  they  make.  About  8  per  cent,  by  weight  is  washed  out  as 
waste.  The  importance  of  a  clean  aggregate  is  seen  when  it  is 
stated  that  briquettes  made  from  washed  pieces  have  a  tensile  strain 
of  15  to  20  per  cent,  higher  than  those  made  from  unwashed  pieces, 
when  tested  under  similar  conditions.  The  cement  used  is  the  best 
Portland,  and  is  required  to  stand  a  tensile  strain  of  350  pounds  per 
square  inch  after  seven  days'  immersion  in  water.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  cement  used  runs  to  an  average  of  425  pounds  on  the 
square  inch.  Hitherto  a  residue  not  exceeding  10  per  cent,  on  a 
5o-mesh  was  allowed,  but  the  value  of  increased  fineness  is  recog- 
nized, and  preparations  are  being  made  for  a  cement  that  will  not 
leave  a  residue  of  10  per  cent,  on  a  76-mesh.  The  weight  runs 
from  116  to  120  pounds  per  striked  bushel  Before  use,  the  cement 
is  laid  out  to  cool  for  fourteen  days,  and  is  turned  frequently  in  that 


202  CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 

time.  Great  care  is  taken  to  keep  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  off  the 
cement.  The  company  exposed  part  of  a  sample  of  cement  to  the 
sun,  and  exposed  the  other  part  to  the  air.  It  was  found  that  the 
part  exposed  to  the  sun  showed  loss  of  strength  equal  to  50  per  cent. 

The  soluble  silica  used  for  the  induration  of  the  stone  is  a  clear 
viscous  substance  made  from  pure  flint  and  caustic  soda,  which  are 
digested  by  heat  under  pressure  in  Papin's  digester  or  an  analogous 
machine.  Its  strength  is  technically  known  as  140°  Twaddle,  which 
shows  1,700  on  a  hydrometer.  The  silica  is  diluted  with  water 
until  it  shows  1,250  or  1,300  on  the  hydrometer,  and  is  then  a  clear 
copper-colored  liquid. 

The  stone  ,is  made  of  three  parts  by  measure  of  washed  granite 
and  one  part  of  cement.  They  are  thoroughly  incorporated  in  a  dry 
state  in  a  horizontal  cylinder  by  machinery,  and  when  this  is  secured, 
water  is  sparingly  added,  and  the  mixing  continued.  At  each  mix- 
ing there  is  made  sufficient  concrete  for  a  3'x2'x2"  slab  only.  When 
it  is  ready  for  putting  in  the  mold,  the  concrete  does  not  appear  to 
the  eye  to  be  sufficiently  wet.  The  molds  are  metal-lined,  true  in 
shape,  with  clearly  defined  arrises.  Before  the  concrete  is  placed 
into  them  they  are  oiled  all  over,  and  then  placed  on  a  trembler. 
This  is  a  machine  which  gives  a  rapid  vertical  jolting  motion  to  the 
mold.  When  the  machine  is  started,  the  concrete  is  placed  into  the 
mold  by  small  shovelfuls  at  a  time,  and  two  men  with  trowels  spread 
it  over  the  mold.  When  the  mold  is  filled  they  pat  the  concrete  with 
the  trowels,  the  water  rises  to  the  surface  and  an  even  smooth  face 
is  secured.  The  mold  and  concrete  are  then  removed  to  a  rest  for 
two  days.  The  whole  operation  of  mixing  the  concrete  and  making 
the  slab  in  the  mold  is  completed  in  six  minutes.  Machine-made 
stones  are  of  necessity  homogeneous,  as  veneering  is  impossible  dur- 
ing the  process.  The  slabs  when  taken  from  the  molds  at  the  end 
of  the  two  days  are  air-dried  for  seven  or  nine  days,  and  then 
immersed  in  a  silica  bath  for  seven  or  nine  days  more.  They  are 
then  stacked  in  the  open  for  some  months  before  use.  The  value 
of  the  silica  bath  is  in  hastening  the  hardening  of  the  stone.  At 
the  end  of  a  month  the  stone  will  stand  from  30  to  40  per  cent,  more 
tensile  strain  if  silicated  than  if  air-dried  only.  It  is  doubted  by 
Mr.  Faija  whether  silicating  increases  the  ultimate  strength  of  con- 
crete. 

The  stone  so  prepared  stands  a  tensile  strain  of  650  Ibs.  on  the 
square  inch  when  three  months  old.  Strains  of  1,000  Ibs.  have  been 
obtained,  but  they  are  not  the  average.  The  value  and  excellence 
of  this  concrete  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  though  the  neat  cement 
has  75  per  cent,  of  aggregate  added  to  it,  yet  in  three  months  the 
mixture  bears  nearly  double  the  tensile  strain  of  the  neat  cement 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS.  203 

after  seven  days.  The  writer  was  shown  the  original  of  a  report  by 
Kirkaldy,  dated  September  6,  1882,  in  which  one  sample  of  stone 
took  8,075  IDS-  per  square  inch  to  crush  it,  and  another  reached 
the  marvelous  strength  of  requiring  9,492  Ibs.  per  square  inch  to 
crush  it. 

Comparison  of  Different  Pavements. — In  the  King's  Road  exper- 
imental pavements  the  makers  laid  their  pavements  with  the  knowl- 
edge that  they  were  competing  with  their  rivals.  They  were  laid  in 
1880.  Asphalt,  York  stone,  Ferrumite  stone,  Victoria  stone,  and 
Imperial  stone  were  laid  side  by  side  and  subjected  to  the  same  traf- 
fics. The  writer  includes  the  York  stone  results,  though  not  strictly 
coming  within  the  subject  of  the  paper. 

In  June,  1884,  the  Ferrumite  stone  was  removed,  as  its  slipperi- 
ness  had  become  a  source  of  danger.  Its  area  was  taken  by  Wilkin- 
son's granite  concrete  pavement  and  by  Shap-stone  pavement.  After 
five  years'  wear  of  the  original  stones,  the  following  results  were 
obtained  : 

The  York  stone  occupied  an  area  of  87  square  yards  ;  the  orig- 
inal thickness  was  3  inches  ;  the  number  of  stones  123,  of  which, 
after  five  years'  wear,  10  had  broken  edges,  16  had  broken  corners, 
21  had  their  surfaces  peeling  off,  and  6  were  worn  so  as  to  be  dan- 
gerous. The  wear  was  not  measurable  by  reason  of  the  uneven 
thickness  of  the  stones,  but  it  was  unmistakable.  The  foot-hold 
was  good  in  all  weathers.  The  actual  cost  was  Ss.  id.  per  square 
yard  laid. 

The  Victoria  stone  occupied  an  area  of  8i£  square  yards  ;  the 
original  thickness  was  2  inches  ;  the  number  of  stones  168,  of  which 
35  had  broken  edges  and  corners,  2  had  their  surfaces  peeling  off, 
and  3  were  visibly  cracked  across.  The  wear  was  not  quite  £-inch 
at  the  greatest  traffic  line.  The  joints  of  the  stone  were  pleasing, 
and  the  color  cheerful.  The  foot-hold  is  not  so  sure  as  that  of  York 
stone  in  dry  weather,  and  in  a  drizzling  rain  it  approaches  shpperi- 
ness.  The  cost  was  6^.  $d.  per  square  yard  laid. 

The  Imperial  stone  occupied  an  area  of  90^  square  yards  ;  the 
original  thickness  was  a  full  2\  inches  ;  the  number  of  stones  187, 
of  which  1 8  had  their  corners  and  edges  broken,  and  i  had  its  sur- 
face partly  peeled  off.  The  wear  was  not  quite  ^-inch  at  the  great- 
est traffic  line.  The  regularity  of  the  joints  is  pleasing  to  the  eye, 
and  the  color  is  light  and  cheerful.  The  foot-hold  is  more  sure  than 
that  of  the  Victoria  stone  sample,  but  it  becomes  somewhat  slippery 
in  drizzling  rain.  The  cost  was  6s.  per  square  yard  laid. 

The  experience  gained  with  the  Shap-stone  laid  in  1884  is  more 
limited,  but  the  stone  does  not  appear  to  be  better  than  the  concrete 
stones  described.  The  length  laid  in  situ  by  Messrs.  Wilkinson  is 


204  CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 

subject  to  the  same  remark,  but  the  aggregate  is  already  wearing  up. 
It  is  laid  in  8-feet  bays.  A  repair  made  in  it  is  a  great  dissight  to 
it.  The  effect  of  the  traffic  in  wear  is  visible. 

Mr.  Walker,  of  Leeds,  has  laid  down  (1886)  in  King's  Road  a 
short  length,  in  bays  about  4  feet  square.  It  has  a  very  smooth  sur- 
face, and  appears  to  be  a  very  good  pavement.  He  lays  a  founda- 
tion of  ballast  concrete  2\  inches  thick  to  within  |-inch  of  the  fin- 
ished surface,  and  cuts  roughly  through  it  so  as  to  form  the  bays. 
He  then  floats  the  surface  with  fine  rich  concrete,  made  of  one  part 
of  cement  to  one  or  one  and  a  quarter  parts  of  crushed  granite  or 
slag  which  pass  through  a  -^  sieve.  This  is  then  cut  through  with 
a  knife  into  bays  of  small  areas.  The  foot-hold  is  fairly  secure  and 
the  wear  very  satisfactory.  No  cracks  appear  when  the  bays  are 
made  less  than  10  feet  square.  At  322  Oxford  Street  a  piece  has 
been  down  three  years,  and  no  wear  is  visible.  He  claims  that  his 
fine  rich  concrete  on  the  surface  attains  more  nearly  to  the  texture 
of  York  stone  than  any  other  pavement.  The  joints,  however,  have 
a  tendency to  spread. 

Concrete  pavements  laid  in  slabs  have  two  serious  disadvan- 
tages. The  writer's  experience  refers  to  Victoria  stone,  but  there  is 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  slabs  of  other  make  are  free  from  them. 
The  first  is  the  annoyance  caused  by  the  hard  metallic  sound  of  the 
footfall  on  them,  which  is  especially  noticeable  at  night.  The  other 
is  their  brittle  nature  and  the  presence  of  hidden  cracks  after  wear. 
When  taken  up  to  relay,  it  is  often  found  that  a  stone  which  was 
apparently  sound,  breaks  before  it  can  be  relaid. 

Concrete  pavements  in  situ  have  the  serious  disadvantage  that 
they  cannot  readily  and  cheaply  be  repaired.  A  patch  in  them 
shows  for  the  whole  life  of  the  pavement,  unless  a  whole  bay  is 
removed. 

The  writer  is  of  opinion  that  concrete  pavements  in  situ  are 
preferable  to  concrete  pavements  laid  as  slabs.  There  is,  however, 
no  reason  why  this  pavement  should  not  be  laid  by  surveyors  them- 
selves, without  the  aid  of  a  contractor.  Much  has  to  be  learned 
before  concrete  as  a  material  for  foot-pavements  is  perfected,  but 
that  can  most  readily  be  learned  by  each  engineer  doing  his  own 
work,  and  exchanging  experiences.  The  prices  paid  for  concrete 
pavements  are  very  great.  One  stone  is  advertised  for  7  a7,  per  square 
foot,  which  equals  £4  145-.  6d.  a  cubic  yard.  This  is  an  extravagant 
price  to  pay  for  concrete,  even  if  it  be  of  the  very  best  kind,  and 
silicated,  too.  Concrete  for  foot-pavements  has  its  own  field,  and 
within  well-marked  limits  its  use  is  advisable,  but  until  its  capabilities 
are  more  largely  tried  and  its  usefulness  increased,  the  full  advan- 
tage will  not  be  obtained  from  it.  The  price  stated  is  large  enough 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS.  205 

to  cover  the  cost  of  experimenting,  and  the  writer  trusts  that  the 
members  will  carry  out  such  a  series  of  tests  and  trials  as  will  com- 
plete the  knowledge  of  concrete  as  a  material  for  foot-pavements. 

Discussion.  A  Remedy  for  Cracks. — In  the  discussion  following 
the  reading  of  Mr.  Strachan's  paper  on  "Asphalt  and  Concrete 
Foot  Pavements,"  we  learn  from  the  Builder  s  report  that  Mr.  Vawser, 
of  Manchester,  mentioned  the  advantage  which  was  experienced  at 
Macclesfield  by  laying  concrete  footpaths  in  about  4-foot  squares, 
and  putting  between  each  a  piece  of  plank.  It  was  found  that  the 
elasticity  of  the  planking  was  sufficient  to  prevent  any  cracking. 

Mr.  Fowler,  of  Manchester,  agreed  as  to  the  great  value  of  con- 
crete paving,  which,  seven  years  ago,  he  used  for  the  Newcastle 
Cattle  Market.  There  he  placed  a  lath  round  the  boundary  of  each 
section,  and  there  was  not  a  single  crack. 

Mr.  Ellice  Clarke,  of  London,  said  his  experience  of  an  asphalt 
footpath  \ -inch  thick  was  that  at  the  end  of  three  years  it  required 
very  considerable  repairs.  The  unsightliness  of  cracks  in  asphalt 
was  their  principal  objection  ;  they  did  not  detract  at  all  from  its 
wearing  well.  The  practice  mentioned  by  Mr.  Vawser  had  been 
discontinued  by  all  who  had  had  much  experience  of  asphalt.  Now 
it  is  usual  to  lay  two  slabs  of  concrete  on  alternate  days,  or  two  or 
three  days. 

Mr.  Boulnois,  of  Portsmouth,  said  that  some  of  the  earlier 
samples  of  ferrumite  stone  had  too  much  iron  in  them,  and  being 
thus  too  hard,  had  a  very  slippery  surface.  The  secret  of  the  wear 
of  asphalt  lay  in  a  nutshell.  Unless  it  got  sufficient  traffic  upon 
it  it  would  never  consolidate  properly. 

Mr.  Lemon,  of  Southampton,  said  that  twenty  years  ago  he  was 
very  enthusiastic  about  asphalt,  and  his  Corporation  laid  a  great  deal 
of  it  down.  He  had  come  to  the  conclusion  now  that  there  must 
be  a  very  large  traffic  over  it,  or  at  least  sufficient  to  keep  it  together, 
otherwise  it  was  bound  to  fail.  Some  laid  down  2-inch  thick  soon 
wore  out,  but  some  laid  2  inches  thick  in  a  roadway  where  there 
was  great  traffic  had  been  down  for  fifteen  years,  and  had  never  cost 
sixpence  for  repairs;  With  respect  to  concrete,  he  thought  concrete 
made  and  laid  in  situ  was  the  footpath  of  the  future. 

TRAMWAYS. 

LIVERPOOL    TRAMWAYS.* 

Tramways  Built  by  the  City. — We  propose  in  this  and  subsequent 
articles  to  give  quite  full  details  of  the  important  work  under  this 
head  that  has  been  done  in  Liverpool.  The  contrast  of  methods  in 
the  construction  of  tramways,  as  compared  with  those  usually  pur- 

*xiv,  369. 


206 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 


sued  in  this  country,  is  violent.  As  will  be  seen,  instead  of  these 
important  franchises  being  given  away,  as  they  are  in  our  large  cities, 
the  city  of  Liverpool  builds  the  roads  and  leases  them  at  the  hand- 
some figure  of  about  eight  per  cent,  on  their  entire  cost. 

Their  Extent  and  Cost. — The  change  in  the  method  began  in 
1880,  when  the  city,  under  powers  granted  by  Parliament,  purchased 
the  then  existing  lines.  Since  that  date  the  lines  have  been  ex- 
tended, until  now  the  total  length  of  single  lines  is  45!  miles.  In 
connection  with  the  construction  of  the  lines  198,452  square  yards 


FIG.  i. — LAYING  THE  ROAD. 

of  stone  block  paving  within  the  statutory  width  has  been  set  on  a 
foundation  of  Portland  cement  concrete,  and  the  total  cost,  including 
engineering  and  other  incidentals,  has  been  $1,394,736,  or  $30,486 
per  mile  of  single  track.  The  whole  street  has  also  been  paved  in 
tramway  streets,  requiring  in  all  about  three  times  the  amount  of  pav- 
ing mentioned,  and  the  monthly  progress  has  been  about  one  mile  of 
tramway  and  13,400  yards  of  "impervious"  paving,  all  executed  by 
corporation  workmen  under  the  supervision  of  the  City  Engineer, 
Mr.  Clement  Dunscombe,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  and  staff. 


CURBS,    SIDEWALK    AND    TRAMWAYS.  207 

Construction. — In  doing  the  work  all  old  stone  blocks  were 
taken  up  and  redressed,  occupying  forty-two  stone-dressers.  The 
fragments  and  waste  were  used  in  concrete,  and  in  the  cost  given  the 
value  of  all  old  material  is  included. 

Prior  to  1879  the  reconstructions  and  extensions  were  made  on 
the  system  of  Mr.  Deacon.  Since  that  time  they  have  been  made  on 
a  modification  of  this  known  now  as  the  "Lyver"  system.  The 
cost  of  maintenance  is  spoken  of  as  very  small. 

Figure  i  is  a  general  view  showing  the  work  of  laying  the  road 
in  progress. 

Figure  2  shows  a  longitudinal  elevation  of  the  rail. 

In  constructing  the  work  the  street  is  fully  excavated  to  a  depth 
determined  upon  as  it  progresses.  A  bed  of  Portland  cement  con- 
crete is  then  formed  to  within  7*  and  6|  inches  respectively  of  the 
finished  roadway.  The  concrete  is  made  of  one  part  by  measure  of 
cement,  six  parts  of  gravel,  and  eight  parts  of  broken  stone.  The 

•  LYVER-  SYSTEM. 
SIPE  ELEVATION.    

F  D     E  A 


FIG.  2. 


cement  is  first  mixed  dry  with  four  times  its  bulk  of  gravel  and  then 
wet  and  mixed  with  the  remainder,  only  water  enough  being  added 
to  make  the  mass  just  adhere  together  when  pressed  in  the  hand. 

On  the  bed  prepared  for  the  concrete,  molded  blocks  of  Port- 
land cement  concrete,  eight  inches  square  at  the  base,  are  laid  with 
their  upper  faces  on  a  level  with  the  under  side  of  the  sleepers  B 
(see  Fig.  3,  which  is  cross-section  of  one  rail).  The  sleepers  are 
then  laid  on  the  blocks,  the  rails  A  being  placed  on  them,  and  the 
wrought-iron  jaws  C  secured  to  the  rails  by  bronze  bolts  D  and 
wrought-iron  nuts  E.  A  small  space  is  maintained  by  temporary 
washers  between  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  jaws  and  the  rails.  As 
soon  as  the  rails  are  leveled  up  and  in  proper  position  the  concreting 
is  proceeded  with  up  to  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the  sleepers,  as 
shown.  After  the  concrete  is  set  the  bolts  are  unscrewed,  the  tem- 
porary washers  removed,  and  the  rails  A  and  sleepers  B  firmly 
screwed  down  to  the  jaws.  The  recesses  or  hand-holes  are  then 
completely  filled  with  plaster-pitch  which  keeps  the  nut  E  from 
turning  round. 


208 


CURBS,    SIGEWALK    AND    TRAMWAYS. 


The  jaws  are  placed  three  feet  between  centres,  except  at  the 
ends  of  rails,  where  the  space  is  nine  inches.  Points  and  crossings 
are  of  annealed  crucible  steel,  secured  to  special  cast-iron 
sleepers,  a  layer  of  roofing-felt  being  laid  between  them  and  the 
sleepers. 

Paving  the  Roadway. — Between  the  rails,  and  for  18  inches  on 
either  side,  the  roadway  is  paved  with  syenite  blocks.  The  blocks 
are  cut  3^x5  to  7  inches,  and  in  two  depths — viz.,  6]  and  yj  inches — 
also  3jx3*x6J  inches  deep.  They  are  squared  throughout,  accu- 
rately gauged,  with  a  maximum  allowed  variation  of  one-quarter 
of  an  inch,  and  laid  in  straight  and  properly  bonded  courses  on  an 

ENLARGED  SECTION. 


FIG.  3. 

even  bed  of  fine  gravel  not  exceeding  half  an  inch  thick.  After 
paving,  the  joints  are  filled  with  clean  dry  shingle  passing  through 
a  I -inch  sieve  and  retained  by  a  f-inch  sieve.  The  sets  are  then 
rammed  and  new  shingle  applied  until  the  joints  are  full,  after  which 
they  are  grouted  with  hot  pitch  and  creosote  oil  of  the  best  quality 
and  covered  with  half  an  inch  of  sharp  gravel. 

Along  each  side  of  the  rail  there  is  laid  a  course  of  alternate 
long  and  short  blocks,  shaped  in  plan  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  These 
are  finely  cut  on  the  side  next  the  rails  so  as  to  make  close  contact ; 
they  are  also  cut  to  touch  each  other  for  one  and  a  half  inches  from 
the  rail. 


CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 


209 


The  weights  per  mile  of  single  track  are  given  as  follows  : 

Bessemer  steel  rails,  40  Ibs.  per  lineal  yard. . .  j   . . .   62.8  gross  tons. 

Cast-iron  sleepers,  80  Ibs.  per.lineal  yard 125.6        f?  " 

Wrought-iron  jaws,  single,  4.28  Ibs.  each H5-5  cwt. 

Wrought-iron  jaws,  double,  10.5  Ibs.  each 35.5    " 

Bronze  bolts,  4  ozs.  each 9-83" 

Wrought-iron  nuts,  5  ozs.  each 10.5    " 


PLAI*  or 
8-sciAL  SET  G 

PLAN  |v^    #jl 

v    «3«**    //'   -J» 


J/"  ^-  J  M    „  y/ 


FIG.  4. 


Testing  Materials. — The  Portland  cement  was  all  tested.  A 
5o-gauge  wire  sieve  (2,500  meshes  per  square  inch)  must  not  return 
more  than  10  per  cent. 

When  tested  neat,  after  twenty-four  hours'  immersion  in  water, 
it  must  stand  1,000  pounds  on  2\  square  inches.  Slow-setting 
cement  must  take  an  impression  from  a  needle  having  an  area  of 
^J-^  of  an  inch,  and  loaded  with  2\  pounds,  at  any  time  within  three 
hours  after  molding,  and  quick-setting  cement  must  give  an  impres- 
sion at  any  time  within  half  an  hour. 

The  Bessemer  rails  were  tested  by  the  drop  test.  With  groove 
upward,  rail  supported  at  three  feet  between  supports,  weight  2,240 
pounds,  dropped  ten  feet,  the  average  deflection  was  8.51  inches  and 
none  were  broken.  Tensile  tests  were  made  on  pieces  18  inches 
long  cut  from  rails.  Allowed  limit  twenty-eight  to  thirty-two  gross 
tons  per  square  inch,  with  elongation  of  20  per  cent,  on  6J  inches. 
The  average  strength  was  31.62  tons,  and  elongation  22  J  per  cent. 
Hot  bending  tests  by  heating  to  cherry  red  and  cooling  in  water  at 
80°,  and  bending  afterward  double,  to  a  curve  with  inner  radius  of 
three  times  the  thickness  of  specimen,  gave  no  fractures.  Short 
lengths  were  bent  cold  under  steam  hammer  to  a  radius  of  six 
inches. 

Deflection  tests,  with  supports  three  feet  apart,  showed  maxi- 
mum elasticity  of  10  tons  and  a  minimum  of  5  tons. 


2IO  CURBS,  SIDEWALKS    AND    TRAMWAYS. 

Cast-iron  was  tested  on  supports  three  feet  apart,  bars  one  inch 
square  to  support  a  centre  load  of  800  pounds.  The  maximum  was 
i, 800,  minimum  640,  and  average  960  pounds. 

Two  per  cent,  of  the  bolts  were  tested  by  a  load  of  three  tons, 
the  nut  being  turned  while  the  load  was  on,  about  4  per  cent,  fail- 
ing under  test  from  inferior  workmanship. 

Sample  nuts  were  tested  by  heating  to  a  cherry  red  and  flatten- 
ing on  an  anvil.  The  result  of  reducing  the  thickness  from  one 
inch  to  one-eighth  of  an  inch  was  to  show  no  splitting  at  the 
edges. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


STREET  OPENING.— MAINTENANCE. 

LIVERPOOL    STRFET    EXCAVATION    CONTRACT.* 

Excavation  of  Trenches  for  Electric  Supply-  Tubes  and  Temporary 
Reinstatement  of  Pavements. — Clement  Dunscombe,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.y 
City  Engineer,  July  n,  1888. 

FORM   OF   TENDER. 

To  the  Chairman  of  the  Health  Committee,  Liverpool. 

SIR  :  We  hereby  agree  to  execute  and  perform  such  works  as  may  from 
time  to  time  be  ordered  in  writing  by  the  City  Engineer  in  connection  with 
the  excavation  of  and  reinstatement  of  pavements  in  Liverpool,  consequent 
upon  the  operations  of  the  Liverpool  Electric-Supply  Company,  under  their 
license,  at  the  rate  of  the  several  prices  we  have  affixed  to  the  items  in  the 
annexed  schedule,  duly  signed  by  us. 

And  further,  we  are  prepared  to  enter  into  a  contract  for  the  due 
fulfillment  of  the  work  in  accordance  with  the  annexed  specification. 

propose  Mr of and  Mr of as  proper  persons 

who  are  willing  to  be  bound  as  sureties  for  the  due  performance  of  this  con- 
tract in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  this  specification. 

We  are,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servants, 

Signature Address Date 

SCHEDULE   OF    PRICES    REFERRED   TO    IN   THE   ANNEXED    TENDER. 

Prices  inclusive  of  all  charges  whatsoever  per  lineal  yard  of  trench  two 
feet  wide,  and  given  separately  for  each  of  the  following  conditions  and 
depths,  not  exceeding  3  feet,  3  feet  6  inches,  4  feet,  4  feet  6  inches  or  5 

feet. 

Footways. — To  take  up  the  pavements  and  curbs  in  footways  where 
required,  excavate  trench  for  pipes,  fill  in  and  ram  the  ground  over  pipes, 
and  temporarily  relay  the  footway  permanent  and  where  disturbed. 

Carriageways. — To  take  up  the  channels  or  impervious  pavements, 
excavate  the  trench  through  the  cement  or  bituminous  concrete  foundation 
as  required  for  laying  the  pipes,  fill  in  and  ram  over  pipes,  and  temporarily 
block  in  the  pavements. 

The  same  with  impervious  pavement  in  hand-pitched  rock  foundation. 

The  same  with  gravel  jointed  set  pavement  on  hand-pitched  founda- 
tion. 

The  same  with  macadam  on  hand-pitched  foundation. 

The  same  with  boulder  pavement  on  hand-pitched  foundation. 

Extra  excavation  for  connections  or  other  necessary  works  measured 
at  the  time  of  execution  of  any  of  the  foregoing  depths,  per  yard,  cube. 

Add  extra  for  work  done  at  night,  as  per  Clause  8. 

Signature Address Date 

*xviii,  293. 


212  STREET     OPENING. 


SPECIFICATION. 

1.  Interpretation. — In  this  specification  the  word  "engineer"   shall 
be  held  to  mean  the  City  Engineer  of  Liverpool  for  the  time  being,  and  the 
word  "  assistant "  shall  be  held  to  mean  the  person  whom  the  engineer  may 
appoint  from  time  to  time  to  superintend  the  works, 

2.  Extent  of  Contract.— This  contract  comprises  the  execution  of  such 
works  as  the  City  Engineer  may  from  time  to  time  order  in  writing  in  con- 
nection with  excavation  of  trenches  for  laying  electric  supply  tubes  under 
the  public  highways  in  the  city  of  Liverpool,  for  which  the  Liverpool  Elec- 
tric Supply  Company  possess  a  license,   and    the  reinstatement  of    such 
trenches  and  pavements  as  specified  and  any  other  works  as  may  be  required 
in  connection  therewith. 

3.  Excavation  of  Trenches  and  Reinstatement  of  Pavements. — The 
contractors  shall,  upon  receiving  notice  in  writing  from  the  City  Engineer, 
forthwith  proceed  to  take  up  the  existing  pavements,  concrete  or  other 
foundation  where  required  for  laying  the  electric  supply  tubes  authorized  by 
the  Liverpool  Electric  Lighting  License,  1888,  and  they  shall  carefully  place 
on  one  side  these  materials  until  the  pipes  are  laid.     They  shall  then  exca- 
vate to  the  required  depths,  and  after  the  electric  supply  tubes  are  placed  in 
position,  fill  in  and  well  ram  down,  in  layers  not  exceeding  six  inches  deep, 
the  trenches  with  the  excavated  material,  watering  the  same  where  neces- 
sary in  order  to  thoroughly  consolidate  it,  and  when  the  filled-in  material  is 
thoroughly  consolidated  the  pavement  over  the  trenches  and  also  any  flag- 
ging disturbed  shall  be  temporarily  reinstated.      All  surplus  excavation  and 
rubbish  shall  be  removed  by  the  contractors,  on  completion,  and  the  surface 
left  clean  and  in  such  a  condition  as  shall  be  safe  and  free  from  danger  to 
both  vehicular  and  pedestrian  traffic. 

4.  Tools,  etc. — The  contractors  shall  provide  all  materials,  labor,  tools, 
tackle,  implements,  etc.,  for  the  proper  execution  of  the  works  executed 
under  this  contract,  and  shall  pay  or  provide  for  all  carriage  and  cartage 
of  materials.     The  contractors  shall  exercise  every  care  and  precaution  in 
taking  up  the  existing  pavements  so  as  to  cause  as  little  damage  as  possible 
to  the  materials  so  removed,  and  any  new  materials  that  may  be  required 
shall  be  the  best  of  their  several  kinds,  and  the  same  shall  be  applied  in  the 
most  workmanlike  and  substantial  manner  possible  and  to  the  entire  satis- 
faction of  the  engineer. 

5.  Contractors  to  Pay  Fees  and  Make  Good    Damage,  etc. — The 
contractors  shall  pay  all  fees  and  compensations,  and  make  good  at  their 
own  expense  all  damages  of  every  kind  which  may  occur  by  reason  of  the 
execution  of  the  works  for  the  performance  of  which  the  contractors  are 
bound. 

6.  Fencing,  Hoarding,  Watching,  Lighting,  etc. — The  contractors 
shall  provide,  make  and  maintain  all  necessary  fencings,  hoardings,  strut- 
tings,  shorings  and  bridgeways,  temporary  or  otherwise,  as  may  be  neces- 
sary for  and  in  consequence  of  any  of  the  works.      They  shall  also  properly 
light  and  watch  all  the  works  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the 
Public  Health  Act  1875,  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  City  Engineer  and  the 
police  of  the  district. 

7.  All  works  shall  be  carried  on  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause  the  least 
inconvenience  to  abutting  occupiers,  and  in  such  manner  lengthwise  and 
widthwise  as  the  engineer  may  direct,  and  which  will  least  impede  the  busi- 


STREET     OPENING.  213 

ness  of  the  neighborhood  and  the  public  traffic,  and  so  as  not  to  obstruct  or 
endanger  pedestrians,  animals  or  vehicles. 

8.  The  contractors  shall,  on  receiving  notice  from  the  City  Engineer, 
execute  such  sections  of  the  work  as  may  be  considered  desirable  to  be  so 
executed  during  such  hours  of  the  night  and  early  morning  as  may  be  pre- 
scribed by  the  City  Engineer  in  such  notice,  and  the  same  shall  be  paid  for 
in  accordance  with  the  schedule  attached  to  the  tender  without  any  further 
amount  being  chargeable  beyond  the  sums  therein  stated. 

9.  Screens. — If  the  contractors  shall  neglect  in  any  case  to  provide  a 
suitable  screen  or  screens  wherever  stones  are  being  chipped  for  the  pur- 
pose of  protecting  pedestrians  they  shall  pay  to  the  corporation  as  and  for 
liquidated  damages  the  sum  of  ^i  per  day  for  every  day  on  which  such  de- 
fault shall  have  been  made,  and  the  Corporation  may  deduct  the  same  from 
any  moneys  in  their  hands  due  or  to  become  due  to  the  contractors. 

10.  Notice  to  Gas  Company  and  Water  Committee. — The  contractors 
shall  give  due  and  sufficient  notice  to  the  gas  company  and  water  commit- 
tee in  order  that  the  proper  persons  having  charge  of  the  mains,  services, 
etc. ,  may  be  enabled  to   attend  and  see  that  the  said  pipes  are  secured, 
relaid  and  reinstated  in  a  proper  and  satisfactory  manner,  the  contractors 
nevertheless  to  execute  or  pay  for  executing  all  such  alterations  and  rein- 
statements and  to  be  held  chargeable  and  responsible  for  the  proper  pro- 
tection and  restoration  of  the  same  at  their  own  expense. 

11.  Facilities  to  Gas  Company  and  Water  Committee. — The  con 
tractors,  if  so  ordered  by  the  engineer,  shall  allow  the  gas  company  and 
water  committee  by  their  workmen  or  agents  to  enter  upon  the  site  of  the 
works  for  the  purpose  of  relaying  the  gas  and  water-mains  and  services 
without  any  extra  charges  being  payable  by  the  Corporation. 

12.  Measurement  of  Work. — The  contractors,  their  agent  or   fore- 
man, shall  attend  weekly  at  such  time  and  place  as  shall  be  named  by  the 
engineer  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  and  ascertaining  the  quantity  of 
work  performed,  and  in  default  thereof  the  engineer  shall  be  at  liberty 
forthwith  to  measure  and  ascertain  the  quantity  himself,  and  his  decision 
as  to  the  quantity  shall  be  final,  binding  and  conclusive  upon  all  parties. 

13.  Subletting. — The  contractor  shall  not  assign  or  underlet  or  make 
over  this  contract,  or  any  benefit  or  interest  thereunder,  to  any  other  person 
without  the  consent  in  writing  of  the  engineer. 

14.  Occupation  of  Site  of  Works. — The  Corporation  may,  for  any  pur- 
pose, or  at  any  time  during  the  continuance  of  this  contract,  occupy  any 
part  of  the  site  of  any  of  the  works  simultaneously  with  the  contractor  for 
the  execution  of  any  works  whatsoever  without  any  compensation  being 
payable  to  the  contractor. 

15.  No  Claim  to  be  Made  for  Delay. — The  contractors  shall  not  be 
entitled  to  compensation  should  any  portion  of  any  of  the  works  be  delayed 
in  its  execution  from  any  cause  whatsoever. 

16.  Rxtra  Works. — No   allowance  shall  be  made  to  contractors  for 
any  alteration  in  or  addition  to  the  work  specified  unless  they  can  produce 
a  written  order  of  the  engineer  for  the  same. 

17.  Disputes. — If  any  dispute  or  differences  arise  during  the  progress 
of  this  contract  or  afterwards  respecting  the  true  intent  of  this  specification 
the  same  shall  be  referred  to  the  engineer,  whose  decision  shall  be  final  and 
binding  upon  all  parties  concerned. 


214  STREET     OPENING. 

18.  Instructions. — The   engineer  shall  have  full  power  to  issue  such 
further  instructions  from  time  to  time  as  he  may  deem  necessary  for  the 
guidance  of  the  contractors,  and  the  contractors  shall  be  bound  by  them. 

19.  Expedition  in   Carrying  on  Works,  Failing  which  Corporation 
may  Employ  other   Contractors. — The  contractors  shall  commence  and 
carry  on  the  works  specified  herein  with  due  diligence  and  as  much  expe- 
dition as  the  engineer  may  require,  and  in  case  the  contractors  shall  fail  to 
do  so,  or  shall  neglect  to  provide  proper  and  sufficient  materials,  or  to  sup- 
ply a  sufficient  number  of  workmen  to  execute  the  works  which  they  shall 
be  ordered  to  execute  with  due  diligence  or  the  dispatch  required,  then  the 
engineer  shall   have  full  powrer  without  vitiating  the  contract,  and  he  is 
hereby  authorized  to  take  the  works,  wholly  or  in  part,  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  contractors  and  to  engage  any  other  person  or  workmen,  and  procure 
all  requisite  materials  and  implements  for  the  filling  in  of  the  trenches 
opened  up  by  the  contractors  whether  the  mains  are  laid  or  not,  and  the 
reinstatement  of  the  pavements  disturbed  by  their  operations  and  due  exe- 
cution and  completion  of  any  works  requisite  in  connection  therewith,  and 
the  costs  and  charges  incurred  in  so  doing  shall  be  ascertained  by  the  engi- 
neer and  paid  for  or  allowed  to  the  Corporation  by  the  contractors,  and  it 
shall  be  competent  to  the  Corporation  to  deduct  the  amount  of  such  costs 
and   charges  out  of  any  moneys  due  or  to  become  due  from  them  to  the 
contractors  under  their  contract,  or  in  case  there  is  no  money  due  or  to 
become  due  to  the  contractors,  then  the  Corporation  may  recover  such  costs 
and  charges  by  action  at  law  or  otherwise. 

20.  Openings  for  Examination. — Should  the  engineer  or  his  assistant 
require  it  for  his  more  perfect  satisfaction   the  contractors  shall,  at  any 
period  during  the  continuance  of  this  contract,  make  such  openings  and  to 
such  extent,  through  any  part  of  the  said  works,  as  the  engineer  or  his 
assistant  may  direct,  and  which  the  contractors  shall  make  good  again  to 
his  satisfaction  at  their  own  expense. 

21.  Superintendence,   Skilled  Workmen. — The   contractors  shall  em- 
ploy only  such  foremen  and  workmen  in  or  about  the  execution  of  any  of 
the  works  under  this  contract  as  are  careful  and  skilled  in  their  various 
trades  and  callings  ;  and  the  engineer  shall  have  full  power  to  object  to  or 
dismiss  any  person  who  shall  be  found  incompetent  or  who  shall  act  in  an 
improper  manner.     The  contractors  shall  also  have  a  competent  representa- 
tive upon  the  works. 

22.  The  Contractors  to  Suspend  any   Works  when  Ordered. — The 
contractors  shall  suspend  the  execution  of  any  work  when  ordered  so  to  do 
in  v/riting  or  otherwise  by  the  engineer,  and  whatever  expense  may  be 
occasioned  by  the  suspension  of  the  works  shall  be  paid  by  the  contractors 
and  without  charge  to  Corporation  ;  and  the  engineer  shall  have  full  power 
to  direct  any  alteration  in  the  manner  of  carrying  on  or  finishing  any  such 
work,  matters,  or  things,  without  thereby  in  any  way  affecting,  vitiating  or 
impairing  the  tenor  or  force  of  this  contract. 

23.  Precautions    Against   Accidents   or   Injury,    Corporation   and 
Officers    to    be   Indemnified   Against   Action,    etc.,    Corporation     -may 
Compromise    Actions,   etc. — The  contractors  shall  take  every  necessary, 
proper,  timely  and  useful  precautions  against  accident  or  injury   to   the 
works,  or  any  of  them,  or  to  any  other  property  or  to  any  person,  by  the 
action  or  pressure  of  water,  and  whether  the  same  shall  arise  from  or  be 
occasioned  by  floods,  springs,  rains,  streams,  accumulations,  disruptions, 


STREET    OPENING.  215 

leakage,  frost,  or  other  natural  or  artificial  causes  whatsoever,  and  shall 
forthwith  repair,  make  good  and  defray  any  loss,  damage,  cost,  charge  or 
expense,  by,  or  in  consequence  of  any  accident,  or  by,  or  in  consequence  of 
the  operations  of  the  contractors  occasioned  to  the  Corporation  or  to  the 
said  works,  or  any  of  them  or  to  any  person  or  persons  injuriously  affected 
thereby  and  shall  indemnify,  save  harmless  and  keep  indemnified  the 
Corporation  and  their  officers  from  and  against  the  same,  and  from  and 
against  all  actions,  suits,  claims,  penalties,  liabilities,  costs,  expenses,  and 
demands  whatsoever  by  reason  or  on  account  thereof,  and  also  from  and 
against  any  claims  for  compensation  under  the  provisions  of  the  Employers' 
Liability  Act,  1880,  and  the  Corporation  may  deduct  the  expense  thereby 
incurred,  or  to  which  the  Corporation  and  its  officers  may  thereby  be  put  or 
be  liable,  or  which  may  be  incident  thereto,  from  the  amount  of  any  money 
which  may  be  or  become  due  or  owing  to  the  contractors,  or  may  recover 
the  same  by  action  at  law  or  otherwise  from  the  contractors  ;  and  the 
Corporation  may,  if  they  shall  see  fit,  compromise  any  such  action,  suit,  or 
other  proceeding,  or  any  claim  in  respect  of  any  such  damage  as  aforesaid 
on  such  terms  as  they  shall  think  fit ;  and  the  contractors  shall  thereupon 
forthwith  pay  to  them  the  sum,  or  sums  paid  by  the  Corporation  on  the 
occasion  thereof,  and  shall  in  every  case  pay  to  them  such  sum  or  sums  as 
shall  fully  indemnify  them  according  to  the  present  stipulation. 

24.  Responsibility  for  Accidents,  etc. — The  care  of  the  entire  line  of 
works  in  each  case  shall  until  their  permanent  reinstatement  by  the  Corpo- 
ration remain  with  the  contractors,  who  will  be  held  responsible  for  all  acci- 
dents from  whatever  cause  arising,  and  for  the  making  good  of  all  damages 
and  defects  to  the  said  works  from  bad  or  insufficient  materials,  bad  work- 
manship, or  any  cause  whatever. 

25.  Payment. — That  subject  to  the  conditions  in  this  specification  con- 
tained, payment  shall  be  made  to  the  contractors  monthly  upon  the  certifi- 
cate of  the  engineer,  and  within  three  weeks  from  the  date  thereof  at  the 
rate  of   75   per  cent,  on  the  value  of  the  respective  works  executed  as 
assessed  by  the  City  Engineer,  and  the  remaining  25  per  cent,  within  two 
months  after  the    permanent   reinstatement  by  the   Corporation   of    the 
respective  pavements  disturbed,  on  condition  that  the  terms  of  the  contract 
shall  have  been  fulfilled  and  upon  the  certificate  of  the  engineer  of  the 
amount  to  which  the  contractors  are  entitled,  and  that  the  work  has  been 
executed  to  his  satisfaction. 

26.  Default  of  Contractors  to  Comply  with  Specification. — The  pay- 
ments hereinbefore  mentioned  are  subject  to  any  deductions  for  expenses 
or  costs  to  which  the  Corporation  may  be  put  in  consequence  of  default  on 
the  part  of  the  contractors  to  fulfill  the  terms  of  this  specification. 

27.  Tenders  not  Necessarily  Accepted. — The  Corporation  do  not  bind 
themselves  to  accept  any  tender,  or  to  pay  any  expenses  incurred  by  parties 
tendering,  and  reserve  to  themselves  the  right  not  to  order  any  of  the  works 
herein  contracted  for. 

OPENING    AND    REINSTATING    PAVEMENTS   IN    LIVERPOOL.* 

We  would  call  the  particular  attention  of  our  readers  to  what 
Mr.  Dunscombe,  City  Engineer  of  Liverpool,  says  below  on  the  sub- 

*  xv,  485. 


2l6  STREET    OPENING. 

ject  of  reinstating  pavement  over  trenches  and  opening  up  of  pave- 
ments : 

"  In  cases  where  trenches  are  required  for  gas  and  water  purposes, 
notice  is  given  by  the  company  to  me;  the  trench  is  then  opened  by  the 
company's  workmen,  and  upon  completion  of  the  work  the  trench  is  filled 
in  by  them  and  the  paving  is  also  temporarily  blocked  in  at  the  company's 
risk.  The  pavement  is  then  reinstated  in  a  permanent  manner  by  Corpo- 
ration workmen,  and  the  cost  of  the  same  and  charges  incidental  thereto 
charged  to  the  company.  The  Corporation  execute  this  work  as  contractors 
only,  and  the  company  are  liable  for,  and  are  actually  charged,  the  cost  of 
any  repairs  necessary  during  a  period  of  six  months  in  order  to  maintain 
the  surface  in  a  perfect  condition. 

"  By  written  permission  of  the  Corporation  only,  openings  in  the  pave- 
ments are  allowed  to  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  examination  of  private 
drains,  and  no  other  interference  with  the  pavements  is  allowed,  either  in 
the  carriageways  or  footways,  except  under  Parliamentary  powers  obtained 
for  the  execution  of  the  work,  in  which  case  ample  protective  clauses  in  the 
Act  of  Parliament  are  obtained  by  the  Corporation,  dealing  with  the  con- 
ditions upon  which  any  undertaking  shall  be  allowed  to  in  any  way  inter- 
fere with  the  streets  or  pavements.  These  clauses  are  comprehensive  and 
fully  protect  all  interests  of  the  Corporation  against  any  undue  interference 
with  the  streets,  and  provide  for  their  reinstatement,  in  a  proper  manner, 
at  the  sole  cost  of  the  promoters,  in  cases  where  such  interference  is  per- 
mitted. 

"  Interference  with  the  pavements  in  Liverpool  is  of  rare  occurrence, 
inasmuch  as  both  the  gas  company  and  the  Water  Committee  of  the  Liver- 
pool Corporation  thoroughly  examine  and  reinstate  where  requisite  their 
mains  and  seryices  concurrently  with  the  repaving  of  a  street,  of  the  exe- 
cution of  which  due  notice  is  given  to  them  by  my  department.  In  no  case 
would  streets  be  allowed  to  be  opened  up  so  as  to  prevent  the  free  passage 
of  traffic  along  it,  except  in  cases  of  the  most  extreme  urgency,  and  even 
in  these  cases  the  local  police  authorities  would  regulate  it,  and  the  pro- 
moters of  any  undertaking  would  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  at  all  with  the 
streets  and  roads  except  under  the  most  stringent  regulations.  The  street 
traffic  is  a  matter  which  receives  the  first  attention  at  the  hands  of  the 
Municipality,  as  any  interruption  of  it  would  be  attended  with  serious  in- 
convenience and  loss." 

HOW    TO    PRESERVE    OUR    PAVEMENTS.* 

In  his  address  to  the  new  Board  of  Aldermen  of  this  city,  Pres- 
ident Beekman  made  the  following  reference  to  the  continual  de- 
struction of  our  pavements : 

"  The  condition  of  the  pavements  of  the  streets  and  avenues  in  various 
portions  of  the  city  has  long  been  a  well-founded  subject  of  complaint. 

"  Under  authority  from  the  Legislature  various  private  corporations,  in 
furtherance  of  their  business  objects,  are  constantly  removing  the  pave- 
ments and  excavating  in  the  public  streets. 

"The  result  of  this  is  that  the  pavement,  insufficiently  restored,  be- 
comes depressed,  holes,  ruts  and  channels  are  formed,  and  an  irregular  sur- 

*Ed.     xv,  179. 


STREET     OPENING.  2i; 

face  is  occasioned  over  which  it  is  painful  to  travel,  and  which  collects  in- 
stead of  shedding  water  and  waste  material. 

"  While,  no  doubt,  the  convenience  and  comfort  of  the  public  are  greatly 
increased  by  the  advantages  which  these  companies  afford  in  their  particu- 
lar line  of  business,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  privileges  they  enjoy  are  of 
exceptional  value,  and  it  can  be  no  hardship  to  require  of  them  all  the  speed' 
care,  and  skill  that  can  be  exercised  in  the  rapid  and  satisfactory  completion 
of  their  work. 

"  While  this  Board  possesses  no  power  to  prevent  the  use  of  the  streets 
for  such  purposes,  it  may  at  least  pass  reasonable  rules  and  regulations,  as 
it  has  in  some  measure  in  the  past,  defining  the  manner  in  which  such  ex- 
cavations may  be  made  and  the  street  surfaces  properly  and  permanently 
restored.  Having  determined  upon  the  most  approved  methods  of  doing 
such  work  an  ordinance  should  be  passed  strictly  enforcing  compliance  with 
such  methods  and  requiring  the  greatest  expedition  in  performing  the  work 
— too  often  protracted  beyond  a  reasonable  time  for  its  proper  execution.', 

What  he  said  may  be  news  to  an  alderman,  but  it  is  no  news  to 
any  engineer  or  any  one  having  the  slightest  familiarity  with  muni- 
cipal engineering.  It  is  our  deliberate  opinion  that  no  matter  what 
ordinances  may  be  passed,  what  regulations  adopted,  or  however 
good  the  inspection  may  be,  the  pavements  of  this  or  any  other  city 
will  never  be  in  decent  condition  until  all  removals  and  restora- 
tions of  pavements  are  done  solely  by  the  city's  own  employees  and 
agents,  for  which  work  any  corporation  or  individual  who  desires  the 
streets  to  be  disturbed  should  be  compelled  to  pay  the  cost ;  and 
that  cost  should  be  sufficient  to  secure  thoroughly  sound  work  and 
also  the  cost  of  a  reasonable  maintenance.  We  are  under  the  im- 
pression that  this  is  the  practice  in  Liverpool,  if  not  in  other  foreign 
cities,  and  by  this  means,  and  this  means  only,  will  people  avoid  the 
opening  of  a  street  except  in  most  imperative  cases.  Indeed,  there 
are  many  occasions  on  which  a  street  is  now  torn  up,  when,  if  there 
was  a  sufficient  tax  placed  upon  such  tearing  Jup,  the  parties  inter- 
ested would  find  some  way  of  tunneling  or  accomplishing  the  pur- 
pose without  a  disturbance  of  the  surface. 

ON    OPENING    UP    PAVEMENTS.* 

It  is  reported  that  a  movement  is  on  foot  to  secure  legislative 
authority  to  repave  a  large  number  of  streets  in  this  city,  the  work 
to  be  under  the  control  and  direction  of  General  Newton,  Commis- 
sioner of  Public  Works.  We  hope  it  may  be  successful.  The  Sam. 
tary  Engineer  and  Construction  Record  has  for  some  time  been  print- 
ing articles  describing  notable  examples  of  pavements  in  other  cities, 
and  a  person  only  needs  to  read  these,  even  if  he  has  not  an  oppor- 
tunity of  visiting  other  cities,  to  become  convinced  of  the  wretched 
character  of  the  pavements  of  this  great  city.  If  authority  is  granted 

*  Ed.  xv,  370. 


2l8  STREET     OPENING. 

General  Newton's  department  to  construct  these  pavements,  and 
there  are  no  needless  conditions  inserted  in  the  act  to  tie  the  Com- 
missioner's hands,  we  believe  New  York  City  will  secure  good  pave- 
ments and  at  a  moderate  price.  But  these  good  pavements  cannot 
be  maintained  unless  additional  powers  are  granted  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Works,  which  will  prevent  in  future  any  disturbance 
of  them,  except  by  the  servants  of  this  department  and  under  its 
direction,  such  disturbances  to  be  paid  for  by  the  companies,  who- 
ever they  may  be,  in  whose  behalf  the  pavements  are  taken  up.  This 
city  badly  needs  pavements,  but  if  it  is  to  retain  any  worthy  of  the 
name,  after  they  are  laid,  some  check  must  be  placed  upon  the  gas, 
steam  and  electric-light  companies,  who  would  otherwise  keep  them 
in  a  constant  state  of  eruption. 

THE  REPAVING  REQUIREMENTS  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY.* 

We  give  herewith  a  brief  report  of  the  preliminary  meeting  of 
the  Committee  appointed  by  the  New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce 
to  confer  with  the  authorities  of  that  city  to  ascertain  in  what  direc- 
tion they  can  best  co-operate  to  secure  the  repavement  of  its  business 
portion.     The  disabilities  under  which  the  authorities  now  labor  will 
doubtless  be  plainly  brought  out  by  this  public  action  of  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce.     It  is  a  hopeful  sign  that  this  influential  body  pro- 
poses to  interest  itself  in  a  movement  to  put  an  end  to  the  disgrace- 
ful condition  of  the  streets  of  New  York,  and  it  is  highly  important 
that  there  should  be  concerted,  intelligent  action  on  the  part  of  all 
good  citizens,  except  the  directors  of  surface  railroads  and  corpora- 
tions, who  are  constantly  disturbing  the  streets  without  any  regard  to 
the  convenience  of  the  community  and  the  pockets  of  taxpayers,  and 
who  hitherto  have  never  failed  to  look  out  for  their  immediate  inter- 
ests, as   has  been  frequently  pointed  out  in  these  columns.     Four 
things  will  have  to  be  decided  upon,  and  until  they  are  done  it  seems 
useless  to  spend  any  money  for  new  pavements.     First. — The  pres- 
ent form  of  street-rail  should  be  abolished,  and  not  another  length 
of  it  should  be  permitted  to  be  laid.     Second. — Paving  of  every  por- 
tion of  a  street  should  be  done  by  the  city  authorities,  or  under  their 
direction  and  control.     Third. — No  openings  should  be  made  in  the 
pavements  except  under  permits  granted  by   the  Commissioner  of 
Public  Works,  which  permits  should  state  definitely  the  exact  loca- 
tion and  limits  both  of  time  and  space  within  which  the  opening  can 
be  made.     Fourth. — All  restorations  should  be  made  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Works  or  under  its  immediate  direction,  the  cost  of 
which  should  be  paid  by  the  corporation  or  individual  for  whom  the 
pavement  was  originally  disturbed.     This  latter  requirement  is  uni- 

*Eo.  xvii,  31. 


STREET     OPENING.  2IQ 

versal  in  every  city  in  Europe  that  pretends  to  have  a  pavement 
worthy  of  the  name.  Without  it  responsibility  cannot  be  placed  on 
any  one,  nor  is  it  possible  to  secure  by  present  methods  anything  but 
the  most  worthless  and  inefficient  work.  As  has  been  pointed  out 
in  the  series  of  articles  on  "Pavements  and  Street  Railroads,"  now 
appearing  in  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record,  the  custom 
abroad  is  to  have  corporations,  like  gas  or  water  companies,  who 
have  occasion  to  frequently  disturb  the  streets,  leave  a  regular 
deposit  with  the  department.  Against  this  deposit  charges  are  made 
for  each  piece  of  paving  done  at  a  fixed  price  per  yard,  according 
to  the  kind  of  pavement.  Where  special  openings  are  made  special 
deposits  are  required.  The  department  in  charge  of  streets,  when 
it  issues  a  permit  for  an  opening,  requires  the  space  to  be  inclosed 
by  means  of  iron  pins  and  a  rope,  from  which  lanterns  are  suspended 
at  night,  and  if  it  is  a  street  which  has  a  concrete  foundation  under 
the  pavement,  time  is  taken  to  allow  the  concrete  to  properly  set 
before  the  pavement  is  relaid.  When  the  necessary  authority  is  given 
to  the  proper  officials  to  institute  and  maintain  the  reforms  here  out- 
lined, pavements  suited  to  a  civilized  community  may  be  secured 
and  retained.  To  that  end  it  is  to  be  hoped  the  influence  and  co- 
operation of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  may  be  effectual. 

The  committee  appointed  by  the  New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce  to 
confer  with  Mayor  Hewitt  and  General  Newton  as  to  what  steps  could  be 
taken  in  order  to  best  co-operate  with  the  authorities  in  securing  new  pave- 
ments for  the  business  portion  of  this  city,  met  by  appointment  in  the 
Mayor's  office  on  December  9.  The  committee  consisted  of  Messrs.  Fran- 
cis B.  Thurber,  Secretary  George  Wilson,  Silas  B.  Dutcher,  James  H.  Sey- 
mour, Thomas  Rutter,  and  Henry  C.  Meyer.  General  Newton,  Commis- 
sioner of  Public  Works,  presented  a  statement  prepared  by  one,  of  his 
staff,  who  had  made  a  survey  of  the  down-town  streets,  which  indicated 
that  536,527  square  yards  of  street  surface  required  repaving,  at  an  esti- 
mated cost  of  about  two  millions  of  dollars.  Mayor  Hewitt  expressed  him- 
self as  in  favor  of  authorizing  a  loan  of  about  five  millions,  to  be  expended 
by  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  for  repaving  the  streets  of  this 
city,  provided  authority  were  given  the  Department  of  Public  Works  to 
compel  railroad  and  other  corporations  to  obey  its  order  with  regard  to  the 
opening  of  streets  and  the  obstruction  of  them  by  needless  street  rails  put 
down  by  railroad  companies  to  hold  a  charter,  but  on  which  they  never 
ran  cars.  The  Mayor  cited  the  aggravated  case  of  the  corporation  who 
have  rails  in  Fulton  Street.  The  impossibility  of  properly  doing  anything 
until  the  authorities  had  power  to  control  the  action  of  corporations  who 
get  grants  from  the  Legislature  or  Aldermen,  and  consequently  ignored  the 
authorities,  was  made  manifest.  A  member  of  the  committee  urged  that 
all  pavements  when  opened  by  corporations  or  other  parties,  should  be 
restored  by  the  department's  own  servants,  the  cost  of  such  restoration  to 
be  paid  by  the  parties  having  the  streets  opened  ;  the  amount  of  space  to 
open  at  one  time,  duration  of  time  of  such  opening,  where  traffic  should 


22O  STREET    OPENING. 

be  suspended,  should  also  be  subject  to  the  discretion  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Public  Works.  On  this  point  the  Mayor  said  that  the  Corpora- 
tion Counsel  would  be  asked  to  see  if  further  legislation  was  necessary  to 
give  such  power  to  the  Commissioner.  Pending  the  securing  of  the  needed 
legislation  suggested ,  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  proposed  to  sub- 
mit a  list  of  the  streets  that  most  imperatively  needed  pavement  to  the 
members  of  the  committee,  and  expressed  himself  as  desirous  of  expend- 
ing the  $500,000  appropriated  by  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment 
on  such  streets  as  the  committee  should  agree  most  needed  it.  After  assur- 
ing the  Mayor  and  the  Commissioner  that  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  would 
heartily  co-operate  with  them  in  a  movement  to  secure  better  pavements 
for  this  city,  the  meeting  adjourned  for  further  conference  when  the  data 
promised  by  General  Newton  should  be  prepared. 

A  MOVE  TO  PROTECT  OUR  PAVEMENTS.* 

We  are  heartily  glad  to  at  last  see  a  move  made  toward  stop- 
ping the  irresponsible  tearing  up  of  New  York  streets.  The  Park 
Board  has  adopted  a  resolution  under  which  all  gas  and  electric 
companies,  sewer  builders  and  the  like,  applying  for  permission  to 
tear  up  the  streets  for  any  purpose,  will  be  compelled  to  deposit  a 
sum  of  money  equal  to  the  original  cost  of  the  pavement,  to  be  held 
until  the  roadway  is  restored  to  good  condition. 

This  is  precisely  what  we  have  been  urging  for  years,  and  the 
soundness  of  the  principle  and  the  necessity  for  action  cannot  be 
questioned.  All  other  city  authorities  should  promptly  follow  the 
example,  which,  however,  does  not  go  far  enough,  since  the  work  of 
restoration  should,  as  we  have  before  stated,  be  done  by  the  city's 
own  employees  and  under  the  direction  of  its  engineers,  the  cost  to 
be  paid  out  of  this  deposit,  which  should  be  more  than  original 
cost  of  pavement.  It  is  easier  to  get  good  work  that  way  than  to 
wrangle  with  the  contractor  of  the  parties  who  rip  up  the  streets. 

MAINTENANCE    OF     PAVEMENTS   IN    LONDON. f 

St.  George  s  Parish. — From  a  report  by  Mr.  George  Livingston, 
C.  E.,  Surveyor  of  St.  George's,  Hanover  Square,  London,  we  gather 
the  following : 

There  are  forty-two  miles  of  paved  streets  in  the  parish.  With  the 
exception  of  Piccadilly  and  two  miles  paved  with  other  materials,  all  of 
these  are  macadamized,  the  road  metal  consisting  either  of  granite,  flints, 
or  gravel,  The  labor  of  maintenance  is  performed  by  what  is  called  a 
"lifting"  gang,  the  men  being  paid  fourpence  per  hour.  The  engineer 
and  stoker  of  the  road-roller  receive  more.  This  gang  is  supplemented  for 
a  part  of  the  year  by  men  called  "  district  roadmen." 

The  average  annual  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  macadamized  streets, 
based  on  the  traffic  and  cost  of  the  past  five  years,  is  estimated  at  2s.  bd. 

*  Ed.  xx,  268.     f  xvii,  84. 


STREET     OPENING.  221 

per  yard  for  the  future,  and  the  estimate  for  granite,  including  renewal  in 
thirty  years,  is  a  trifle  more  than  one-half  as  much.  The  addition  of  cost 
of  cleansing  in  each  case  would  make  the  disparity  still  greater. 

Systems  of  Maintenance. — Four  systems  of  maintenance  and  repair 
are  discussed : 

First — By  contract  under  fixed  prices  for  labor  and  materials.  The 
difficulties  of  determining  the  exact  condition  the  streets  shall  be  in  at  the 
expiration  of  the  contract,  and  of  getting  efficient  contractors  is  dwelt  upon. 
The  convenience  of  a  large  staff  of  workmen  is  also  mentioned. 

Second—  By  piece-work  or  part  contract.  The  Vestry  would  by  this 
supply  the  materials  and  the  contractor  the  labor  and  tools. 

Third— By  a  superior  class  of  men  in  the  employment  of  the  parish. 
This  is  essentially  the  present  plan,  except  that  by  offering  a  higher  price 
for  labor  better  men  would  be  obtained. 

Fourth — By  the  substitution  of  a  different  description  of  pavement. 

Street  Cleaning. — Street  cleaning  is  considered  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant matters  to  deal  with.  It  is  done  in  part  by  contract  and  in  part  by  the 
parish  staff.  There  are  in  the  employ  of  the  parish  in  the  "inwards" 
twenty-two  men,  one  foreman,  and  a  sweeping-machine.  Men  are  paid 
2s.  6d.,  foreman  3$.  6d.  per  day,  beginning  at  4  o'clock  in  the  morning  in 
summer  and  6  o'clock  in  the  winter.  Sweepings  are  removed  by  carts  as 
soon  as  possible.  The  sweepers  are  mostly  paupers  and  cost  more  on 
account  of  small  quantity  of  work  done  than  a  better  class  of  labor.  Hav- 
ing no  water- proof  clothing  furnished  them,  no  work  is  done  in  wet 
weather.  In  the  out  wards  there  are  thirty-two  districts,  in  each  of  which 
a  roadman  sweeps  the  crossings  and  collects  the  refuse  by  barrow  for 
removal  by  the  carts.  He  also  does  all  repairing  needed.  The  total  annual 
cost  for  cleaning  the  streets  is  about  j£io,ooo. 

"  Notwithstanding  this  large  outlay,  the  streets  of  the  parish  (in  the 
opinion  of  the  committee)  continue  to  be  most  inefficiently  cleansed.  The 
nuisance  most  complained  of  is,  that  the  mud  is  swept  from  the  centre  and 
deposited  in  large  heaps  at  the  sides  of  the  road  in  or  near  the  channel, 
where  it  is  left  for  an  unreasonable  time  to  the  great  inconvenience  of  the 
public.  The  simple  cause  of  this  is  that  the  streets  which  have  been  swept 
yield  a  greater  quantity  of  mud  than  can,  by  the  present  system,  be 
removed.  This  is  due  chiefly  to  an  insufficient  staff  of  horses  and  carts  to 
remove  the  slop  and  the  difficulty  attending  its  ultimate  disposal.  Any 
increase,  therefore,  in  the  staff  necessary  to  perform  this  work  more  rapidly 
must  entail  additional  expense. 

' '  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  speedy  cleansing  of  the  streets,  how- 
ever, under  existing  circumstances  are  numerous.  The  chief  are  : 

1 '  First — The  nature  and  condition  of  the  pavement  to  be  cleansed. 

"  Second— The  imperfect  method  of  sweeping. 

"  Third— -The  amount  of  mud  to  be  removed. 

"  Fourth — The  objectionable  and  dilatory  method  of  removal. 

The  cleansing  of  the  streets,  both  as  regards  its  cost  and  efficiency, 
depends,  to  a  very  great  extent,  upon  the  description  of  pavement  of  which 
they  are  composed  ;  and  it  cannot  be  disputed  that  macadamized  streets 
(such  as  most  of  the  thoroughfares  of  this  parish),  subject  to  heavy  traffic, 
yield  a  much  greater  quantity  of  mud  than  any  other  pavement.  For  exam- 
ple, the  average  quantity  of  slop  removed  from  the  macadamized  portion  of 
Piccadilly  (previous  to  its  being  paved  with  wood),  between  Engine  Street 


222  STREET     OPENING. 

and  Hyde  Park  Corner,  comprising  an  area  of  about  8,600  yards,  was  sel- 
dom less  than  from  25  to  30,  and  frequently  as  much  as  40  cart-loads  a  day 
in  wet  weather  ;  notwithstanding  this,  the  roadway  was  never  in  a  satis- 
factory condition.  Whereas,  since  it  has  been  paved,  the  average  quantity 
of  slop  removed,  under  equal  conditions,  -from  the  entire  length  of  the  road- 
way— nearly  three-quarters  of  a  mile — representing  an  area  of  about  20,000 
yards,  does  not  exceed  12  cart-loads  a  day,  the  greater  portion  of  which  is  a 
valuable  manure.  Every  one  who  has  observed  the  roadway  under  the 
two  conditions  of  pavement  must  be  sensible  of  the  vast  improvement  that 
has  been  effected.  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  Piccadilly,  which 
was  formerly  one  of  the  worst  kept  and  filthiest  roads  in  the  parish,  is  now, 
considering  the  labor  employed,  one  of  the  handsomest,  cleanest,  and  best 
kept  thoroughfares  in  the  metropolis. 

The  surface  of  streets,  under  certain  conditions,  is  frequently  covered 
with  a  thick,  sticky,  greasy  mud,  due  to  various  circumstances,  the  state  of 
the  atmosphere,  the  situation  of  the  street,  and  the  influence  of  wind  and 
sun,  etc.,  which  the  present  system  of  sweeping,  especially  on  macadam, 
utterly  fails  to  remove,  and  which  is  the  occasion  of  serious  accidents. 
According  to  some  returns  of  the  Registrar-General,  the  average  annual 
number  of  persons  killed  in  the  streets  of  London  is  about  200,  and  the 
number  injured  by  accident  about  2,000.  The  greasy  and  slippery  state  of 
the  streets  is  often  the  cause  of  these  casualties. 

The  macadamized  roads,  also,  at  times,  are  "permeated  with  the  solu- 
tions of  the  surface  dung  deposits,  and  become  excrement  sodden,"  the  dry 
decomposition  of  which  neither  the  broom-sweeping  nor  the  scraper  can 
wholly  remove  ;  and  the  moist  exhalations  produced  by  street-watering 
(during  the  process  of  evaporation),  especially  in  hot  weather,  are  most 
offensive.  As  a  matter  of  public  health  and  safety,  therefore,  the  perfect 
cleansing  of  the  roads  and  streets  is  most  essential.  The  quantity  of  mud 
and  slop  to  be  removed  from  the  streets  depends  entirely  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  their  surface  and  the  nature  of  the  weather  ;  and  the  accumulation 
swept  from  the  streets  of  this  parish,  which  averages  about  30,000  loads  a 
year,  is  so  great  that  its  speedy  removal  from  all  the  streets  is,  under  pres- 
ent arrangements,  impossible.  This  is,  in  great  measure,  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  entire  bulk,  after  having  been  scooped  up  in  shovelfuls,  has  to 
be  removed  by  horses  and  carts.  A  more  filthy,  more  costly,  and  less 
speedy  method  of  street  cleansing  cannot  be  well  imagined,  and  there  are 
many  who  regard  it  as  discreditable  to  the  sanitary  arrangements  of  this 
capital. 

If  the  cleansing  of  the  streets  is  continued  to  be  done  on  the  present 
principle,  there  is  an  obvious  remedy  for  the  evils  complained  of,  provided 
the  necessary  expense  is  incurred.  Suppose,  for  instance,  it  is  required  to 
have  the  whole  of  the  streets  in  the  parish  cleansed  by  a  certain  hour  in 
the  morning  (say  10  o'clock),  all  that  would  be  necessary  would  be  to  employ 
a  sufficient  number  of  men  to  sweep  the  mud  and  dirt  from  the  streets 
before  that  time,  and  to  make  it  imperative  upon  the  contractor  to  remove 
it ;  but  the  cost  of  providing  such  a  staff  would  be  serious.  In  cleansing 
thoroughfares,  especially  those  of  great  traffic,  speed  and  efficiency  are  of 
the  first  importance  ;  any  scheme,  therefore,  to  be  proposed  for  the  better 
cleansing  of  the  streets  must  have  regard  to  such  results.  One  method 
which  I  venture  to  suggest,  by  which  this  might  be  effected  would  be  by 
fixing  in  each  of  the  principal  streets  of  the  parish  a  number  of  hydrants, 


STREET     OPENING.  223 

at  convenient  distances  apart,  to  which  suitable  lengths  of  hose-pipe  could 
be  attached.  By  this  arrangement,  the  whole  length  of  a  street  could  be 
thoroughly  cleansed  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  and  after  the  street  had 
been  washed  by  the  application  of  water  in  this  manner,  and  swept  by  an 
India-rubber  broom  or  squeegee,  made  on  the  principle  of  the  present 
horse-scraper,  so  as  to  remove  any  wet  or  moisture  from  the  surface,  it 
would  be  rendered  perfectly  dry  and  free  from  every  description  of 
filth. 

Street-  Washing. — Under  existing  arrangements,  the  sweepings  of  the 
streets  (as  before  stated)  are  removed  by  contract,  and  it  is  naturally  the 
object  of  the  contractor  in  performing  this  work  to  avoid  as  much  cartage 
as  possible;  consequently,  in  wet  weather,  the  mud  and  slop  are  of  ten  either 
left  at  the  sides  of  the  streets,  or  are,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  when  oppor- 
tunity offers,  swept  into  the  gullies.  The  adoption  of  the  hose-pipe,  how- 
ever, would  dispense  almost  entirely  with  scavengers,  and  also  with  the 
annoyance  and  labor  of  cartage  ;  for,  by  the  application  of  water,  the 
sweepings  of  the  streets  would  be  put  in  such  condition  as  to  cause  them 
to  pass  off  immediately  into  the  sewers. 

The  passing  of  this  liquefied  mud  through  the  sewers  might  be  con- 
sidered objectionable,  as  being  likely  to  choke  them  up.     I  am  of  opinion, 
however,  that,  so  far  from  creating  any  stoppage  in  the  sewers,  the  opera- 
tion would  be  most  beneficial,  as  it  would  have  the  effect  of  flushing  them. 
This  hose  or  jet  system  is  not  new  ;  and  Mr.  Heywood,  the  City  Engineer, 
who  tried  it,  states  with  reference  to  the  effect  it  had  upon  the  sewers  that 
"  during  the  experiment  in  street- washing  I  had  the  gullies  and  sewers 
within  the  city  carefully  examined  from  time  to  time,  when  they  were 
found  to  be  not  only  as  clean  as  they  had  previously  been,  but,  if  anything, 
cleaner  ;  and,  indeed,  I  think  that  if  the  surfaces  of  the  city  pavements 
were  cleansed  by  water  alone,  both  gullies  and  sewers  would  be  cleaner 
than  at  the  present  time,  for,  as  before  stated,  much  dust  or  dirt  is  now 
swept  into  them  in  such  condition  that  the  usual  current  does  not  readily 
move  it,  whereas,  if  the  streets  were  daily  washed,  nothing  would  go  into 
the  sewers  excepting  that  which  found  its  way  there  by  reason  of  its  fluidity." 
Where  the  streets  are  paved  as  in  the  city,  no  reasonable  objection 
could  be  raided  to  the  adoption  of  such  a  system  ;  with  macadamized  roads, 
however,  it  might  be  different.     Under  any  circumstances,  the  hose-pipe 
would  have  the  effect  of  thoroughly  cleansing  the  streets  of  all  their  impuri- 
ties, no  matter  what  might  be  the  nature  of  the  pavement  or  the  condition 
of  its  surface  ;  and  it  would  be   equally   applicable   and  effective  in   all 
weathers,  frost  excepted.     Under  the  present  arrangements,  and  during  dry 
weather,  it  is  at  times  quite  impossible  to  remove  the  dust  and  dung,  etc., 
which  accumulate  in  the  strepts,  and  which,  as  I  have   already  stated, 
under  certain  conditions  are  the  cause  of  offensive  smells.      To  in  part 
mitigate  this  nuisance,  I  have  caused  the  streets  to  be  swept  during  the 
early  hours  of  the  morning  ;  and  although  this  has  generally  speaking  been, 
to  some  extent,  successful,  it  cannot  at  all  times  be  performed  with  good 
effect,  for  in  certain  seasons  the  ground  is  during  the  early  morning  so 
damp  from  heavy  dews  that  sweeping  alone  fails  to  remove  the  dry  dust 
and  other  offensive  matter  from  the  surface  of  the  streets,  into  which  they 
have  been  firmly  trodden.     For  the  past  two  summers   I  have  had  the 
principal  thoroughfares  washed  twice  a  week,  and  the  result  has  proved 
so  beneficial  that  during  the  excessively  hot  weather  of  last  summer  I  had 


224  STREET     OPENING. 

not  one  single  complaint.  Such  a  system  of  street  cleansing  would  be 
the  most  successful  method  applicable,  as  cleansing  by  water  produces  a 
perfect  state  of  cleanliness,  by  the  removal  of  all  decomposing  matter. 

Receptacles  for  Street  Mud. — Failing  this  scheme,  the  only  other 
method  I  can  suggest  is  by  making  provision  in  the  streets  for  the  reception 
of  the  sweepings  during  the  wet  weather,  which  is  quite  practicable.  The 
quantity  of  slop  or  mud  swept  from  the  macadamized  roads  on  a  wet  day 
averages  in  this  district  from  four  to  five  loads  per  mile.  In  certain  streets, 
of  course,  the  quantity  to  be  removed  would  be  greatly  in  excess  of  this  ; 
but  these  would  be  the  exception.  All  that  would  be  required,  therefore, 
would  be  to  construct  in  each  street  a  receptacle  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
contain  the  slop  swept  from  its  surface,  and  as  the  quantity  to  be  allowed 
for  is  small  compared  with  the  entire  length  of  the  street,  this  might  be 
effected  by  a  very  simple  arrangement — namely,  the  construction  of  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  troughs  in  each  street,  at  convenient  distances  apart,  placed 
alongside  the  curb,  and  underneath  the  channel  way  into  which  the  mud  on 
the  streets  would  be  at  once  swept,  and  whence  it  could  afterwards  be 
carted.  The  great  advantage  of  this  would  be  that  in  sloppy  weather  the 
whole  of  the  mud  and  dirt  swept  from  the  surface  of  the  streets  would  be 
immediately  removed  out  of  sight.  The  receptacles  might  be  made  fixed 
or  movable  as  required,  and  constructed  so  as  to  present  no  unsightly 
appearance  ;  in  fact,  they  would  in  appearance  exactly  resemble  a  length- 
ened street  gully,  except  that  provision  would  be  made  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  storm-waters.  In  a  thoroughfare  like  Park  Lane,  for  instance, 
which  on  a  wet  day  yields  about  thirty  loads  of  slop,  thirty  of  these  recepta- 
cles, placed  at  suitable  intervals,  each  seven  feet  long  by  two  feet  wide  and 
two  feet  deep,  would  be  ample  for  the  reception  of  the  accumulated  slop  of 
the  entire  length  of  roadway.  The  contents  would  be  removed  in  carts  at 
leisure,  either  during  the  day  or  at  night.  Under  existing  arrangements  the 
time  occupied  in  filling  a  cart  varies  from  twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour 
according  to  circumstances.  By  the  proposed  arrangement  a  cart  could 
easily  be  filled  in  half  the  shortest  period  now  required. 

Sweeping  Machines. — Failing  both  of  these  suggestions  the  only 
other  alternative  is  to  increase  the  number  of  horse-sweeping  machines,  and 
make  it  binding  under  heavy  fines  upon  the  contractor  to  remove  the  whole 
of  the  mud  as  quickly  as  it  is  swept  from  the  surface  of  the  streets.  A  man 
with  a  broom  will  sweep  about  3,000  square  yards  a  day  ;  a  man  and  horse 
with  rotary  sweeping-machine  will  sweep  an  area  ten  times  as  great — 
namely,  say  30,000  yards. 

In  addition  to  and  in  connection  with  either  of  these  systems  the 
erection  of  "  orderly  bins  "  along  the  sides  of  the  principal  streets,  to  collect 
the  horse-dung  and  other  matter  which  accumulates  during  the  day,  would 
be  of  much  use  and  greatly  assist  the  work  of  cleansing. 

Practice  in  Paris. — In  Paris  the  sweepings  of  the  streets  are  not 
removed  in  carts  as  is  the  system  here.  There  the  London  "  slop"  cart  is 
unknown,  the  refuse  and  mud  is  not  permitted  to  remain  on  the  surface  of 
the  streets,  but  is,  with  the  aid  of  water,  swept  directly  into  specially 
constructed  sewers. 

Conclusions. — The  conclusions  resulting  from  the  foregoing  may  be 
recapitulated  as  follows  : 

First. — The  work  of  repairing  and  maintaining  the  parish  roads  would 
be  more  economically  and  efficiently  performed  by  having  ample  accomrao- 


STREET    OPENING.  225 

dation  for  the  storage  of  road  material;  by  the  employment  of  able-bodied 
laborers;  and  by  discontinuing  the  use  of  macadam  in  all  leading  thorough- 
fares. 

Second. — Cleansing  would  be  more  rapidly  effected  by  such  methods 
as  the  employment  of  hydrants,  with  receptacles  for  sweeping  at  the  street 
sides;  employing  more  horse  sweeping-machines;  obliging  contractors  to 
remove  mud  as  swept  up;  increasing  the  number  of  parish  horses  and  carts, 
etc. ,  and  discontinuing  macadam  in  leading  thoroughfares. 

Maintenance  in  Chelsea* — The  following  items  are  from  the 
annual  report  of  Mr.  George  R.  Strachan,  Surveyor  to  the  Parish 
of  Chelsea,  London. 

Complaint  is  made  of  an  insufficient  number  of  street  basins, 
and  that  the  gutter  stones,  from  not  being  laid  on  concrete,  have 
settled  under  heavy  loads,  so  as  to  form  depressions  which  hold  the 
water.  He  states  the  axiom,  that  "a  street  on  which  water  gathers 
is  a  dirty  street,  and  a  dirty  street  is  an  expensive  street."  The  use 
of  flints  on  macadam  roads  is  condemned  as  being  "  dusty  in  summer 
and  dirty  in  winter"  under  heavy  traffic.  Good  granite  is  recom- 
mended, but  not  such  as  breaks  into  sharp,  razor-shaped  pieces. 
Large  stones  are  a  positive  evil,  and  it  requires  much  care  to  insure 
that  the  stones  do  not  exceed  two  inches  in  the  largest  dimension. 
The  paragraph  on  the  wastefulness  of  macadam  roads  for  streets 
carrying  heavy  traffic  is  worth  quoting  entire: 

Cost  of  Maintenance. — Broken  granite  at  its  best  is  very  wasteful  as  a 
material  for  maintaining  carriageways  where  heavy  traffic  exists.  A  cubic 
yard  of  Guernsey  granite  costs  the  Vestry  I2S.  bd.  on  the  wharf  this  year. 
The  cartage  of  it  to  the  carriageway,  spreading,  rolling,  and  consolidating 
it  costs  gs.  bd.  more,  or  a  total  of  22s.  on  the  finished  carriageway.  It  is 
there  ground  to  dust  in  dry  weather  and  to  mud  in  wet  weather,  and 
becomes,  taking  an  average  of  all  weathers  and  of  the  traffic  weights  in 
Chelsea,  four  cubic  yards  of  slop  or  mud.  These  cost  IDS.  $d.  for  sweeping 
to  one  side  of  the  carriageway,  6s.  for  carting  to  the  wharf,  and  then  43.  $d» 
for  their  disposal.  From  first  to  last  the  cubic  yard  of  Guernsey  granite  has 
cost  £2  2S.  f)d.  In  roads  like  King's  Road  one  year's  wear  is  the  utmost 
that  is  obtained  from  it.  The  average  life  in  the  home  district  is  only  four 
years.  The  temporary  use  of  the  material  at  the  large  cost  named  brings 
vividly  to  the  mind  the  unscientific  and  wasteful  character  of  macadam 
roads  in  heavy  traffic,  and  points  to  the  necessity  of  using  a  better  and 
different  class  of  material  for  carriageways  in  main  thoroughfares. 

Steam  Rollers. — As  to  the  value  of  steam  road-rollers  the  report 
states  that,  after  a  contest  in  the  courts,  the  right  to  use  them  has 
been  maintained,  the  gas  company  having  sought  to  restrain  them 
on  account  of  damage  to  pipes.  One  of  twelve  tons  and  one  of 
ten  tons  are  now  in  use,  at  a  cost  for  each  of  los.  6d.  per  day, 
including  driver,  fuel,  oil,  etc.  By  the  use  of  one  300  square  yards 

*xvii,  116. 


226  STREET    OPENING. 

can  be  finished  per  day,  with  a  great  saving  to  tradesmen  on  a  street 
by  the  shortening  of  time  occupied  in  repairs.  Repairs  by  simply 
throwing  stone  loosely  on  the  surface  and  depending  on  traffic  to 
pack  them  is  considered  a  cruelty  to  horses  and  an  inconvenience  to 
the  public.  Two  gas-mains  have  been  cracked  by  the  rollers,  but 
the  insignificant  cost  of  their  repair  bears  no  comparison  to  the 
saving  by  the  use  of  the  rollers. 

Cost  of  Repairing.  —  The  following  statement  is  given  of  the 
actual  cost  of  repairing  Harrow  Road,  the  area  repaired  being  9,522 
square  yards: 

£    s.    d. 
Estimated  cost 390    o      6 

ACTUAL  COST. 

477  scores 35  15  6 

403  tons  granite 211  14  i 

216  yards  hogging 52  4  o 

I3>5°°  gallons  water 10  ij£ 

76 }£  days'  horse  hire 34  6  3 

Labor 48  4  10 

Roller. 

Maintenance  (i  per  cent,  on  .£375) 3  15  o 

3,500  gallons  water 2  75^ 

Half  ton  coal 9  3  }£ 

125  bundles  wood  4  4  *^ 

Six  chaldrons  coke 214  o 


£390    o      i 
Below  estimate. .  o      «; 


Cost  per  square  yard;  9.82^. 

Average  area  rolled  per  day  of  10  hours,  423^-  square  yards. 

Average  thickness  of  granite,  about  1.38  inches. 

Wood  Pavements. — As  to  wood  pavements,  some  which  have 
borne  a  traffic  of  550  tons  per  yard  in  width  during  sixteen  hours 
per  day  for  seven  years  are  good  for  some  time  to  come.  These 
pavements  wear  most  at  the  sides  of  the  road  where  the  water  lies 
on  its  way  to  street-basins;  the  surface  also  wears  uneven  in  the 
older  portions.  Hard  wood  has  not  proved  satisfactorj  ;  when  one 
block  is  defective  it  wears  more  rapidly  than  adjacent  ones,  and  cup- 
shaped  depressions  are  formed,  instead  of  saucer-shaped  as  in  the 
softer  woods. 

Asphalt  Pavements. — Of  asphalt  pavements  Mr.  Strachan  says: 
"  I  venture  to  state  that  there  is  not  a  pavement  in  use  so  economi- 
cal, healthy  and  clean,  and  with  so  many  advantages  as  asphalt.  Its 
one  disadvantage  of  slipperiness  does  not,  in  my  opinion,  outweigh 
its  advantages." 


STREET    OPENING.  227 

The  various  carriageways  now  paved  with  it  are  in  better  con- 
dition than  when  first  completed.  "  They  make  no  mud,  and  are 
always  wholesome.  A  heavy  rain  washes  them  clean,  and  an  extra 
watering  attains  the  same  end." 

The  footways  paved  with  asphalt  mastic  one  inch  thick  are 
spoken  of  in  the  highest  terms,  although  compressed  asphalt  is  un- 
doubtedly most  durable. 

The  trouble  from  cracks  in  the  latter  and  methods  of  overcom- 
ing were  treated  of  in  previous  articles. 

Flag-stone  footways  allow  water  to  percolate  through  the  joints 
into  cellars  unless  they  are  laid  on  concrete. 

Cleaning. — The  main  streets  are  swept  daily,  others  three  times  and 
twice  a  week  according  to  their  importance.  Six  gangs  of  men  are  engaged 
in  this  work,  and  are  assisted  by  four  sweeping-machines  and  three  scrap- 
ing machines  whenever  practicable.  The  wood  pavement  is  washed  during 
dry  weather,  and  the  slop  occasioned  thereby  is  removed  as  quickly  as  the 
present  system  allows  of.  Street  orderly  men  are  regularly  employed  on 
the  wood  pavement  to  remove  the  horse-manure  and  the  refuse.  During 
the  year  19,695  cubic  yards  of  slop  and  street  sweepings  have  been  swept 
from  the  streets,  and  have  been  carted  to  the  wharf  at  2s.  3^.  per  load. 
These  were  shot  into  barges,  and  removed  at  is.  %d.  per  load. 

Removal  of  Refuse. — By  contract,  the  carts  are  to  call  at  every  house 
once  a  week  at  least,  and  the  men  are  to  ask  for  the  dust.  The  system  fol- 
lowed when  an  application  is  made  for  the  removal  of  dust  is  for  an  inquiry 
to  be  made  as  to  why  it  was  necessary.  If  the  contractor  is  at  fault,  he  is 
informed  of  the  fact;  if  the  servants  have  refused  to  allow  the  men  to  take 
away  the  dust  when  they  called,  their  master  is  informed  of  that  fact;  and 
if  the  householder  has  been  averse  to  having  it  removed  weekly,  he  is 
urged,  on  the  ground  of  health,  to  allow  it  to  be  taken  each  time  the  men 
call;  and  by  these  means  it  is  endeavored  to  secure  a  regular  and  weekly 
removal  of  all  the  household  refuse. 

The  collecting  contractor  is  instructed  not  to  collect  trade  refuse  as  dust, 
and  a  strict  watch  is  kept  on  what  he  delivers  to  the  wharves. 

The  public  grumbles  at  the  local  authority  for  its  neglect  in  the 
removal  of  dust,  yet  they  put  out  of  the  reach  of  the  local  authority  the  only 
means  of  doing  the  work  well.  The  custom  of  tips  is  the  curse  of  local 
effort.  It  demoralizes  the  men,  it  causes  them  to  act  dishonestly  in  remov- 
ing rubbish  that  ought  not  to  be  otherwise  disposed  of,  and  it  inflicts  a  great 
hardship  on  the  poor. 

Street  Watering. — For  street-watering  the  price  paid  for  water  is  gd. 
per  1,000  gallons,  and  the  cost  has  been  ^"65  igs.  lod.  per  mile  watered. 

Street  Opening  by  Gas  and  Water  Companies. — Street  openings  by 
gas  and  water  companies  cause  damage  to  the  roads  and  are  an  annoyance 
to  the  public.  They  may  be  necessary  for  the  business  of  the  companies 
as  at  present  conducted,  but  they  are  an  injury  to  the  roads.  I  am  con- 
vinced that  sooner  or  later  the  local  authorities  of  the  metropolis  will  have 
to  take  united  action  for  their  own  protection  against  the  powers  and  cus- 
toms of  these  bodies.  I  have  already  referred  to  the  steam-roller  case 
where  the  law  has  subordinated  the  rights  of  the  public  in  the  repair  of  the 
streets  to  the  rights  of  these  commercial  undertakings.  At  the  close  of  the 


228  STREET    OPENING. 

year  the  law  has  been  held  to  make  the  public  liable  for  personal  injury 
under  the  following  circumstances:  A  water  company  placed  an  iron  box 
in  a  York  stone  footway  under  their  statutory  powers.  In  time  the  stone 
wore  below  the  level  of  the  iron  box  and  an  unfortunate  pedestrian  tripped 
up  over.it  and  sustained  serious  injury.  He  brought  an  action  for  compen- 
sation, and  it  was  held  that  the  local  authority  was  liable.  In  this  case  the 
local  authority  cannot  successfully  refuse  to  have  the  iron  boxes  fixed  in 
their  pavements,  and  yet  they  are  required  to  keep  the  pavements  up  to 
the  boxes.  If  the  boxes  were  not  there  the  pavement  would  wear  equally 
and  no  injury  would  be  caused.  This  is  a  serious  liability.  I  have  not 
objected  to  the  Chelsea  Water- Works  Company  inserting  such  works  and 
apparatus  as  they  deem  necessary  in  the  streets,  but  if  these  liabilities  are 
to  be  thrown  upon  the  Vestry,  it  will  be  my  duty  to  draw  the  attention  of 
the  Vestry  to  the  question.  It  is  no  light  matter  to  engage  in  lawsuits  with 
these  companies,  when  one  of  them  can  spend  ,£100,000  in  law,  and  then 
pay  10  per  cent,  to  its  shareholders  out  of  the  annual  revenue. 

MAINTAINING    MACADAM    ROADS    IN    LIVERPOOL.* 

On  the  subject  of  pavement  in  cities  of  the  Continent  of  Europe 
and  Great  Britain,  Mr.  Clement  Dunscombe,  City  Engineer  of  Liver- 
pool, writes  : 

In  the  area  referred  to  there  are  innumerable  descriptions  of  pavements, 
some  good  and  some  bad,  and  in  many  of  the  large  cities  and  towns  the 
same  remark  applies.  Some  of  these  cities  and  towns  are,  as  a  whole, 
extremely  well  paved,  but  in  no  city  or  town  is  the  pavement  laid  down  so 
thoroughly  well  constructed,  so  durable,  and  so  sanitary  as  in  Liverpool ; 
and  what,  to  some,  may  appear  extravagant  in  the  methods  here  pursued 
can  be  proved  by  demonstration  to  be  the  most  economical  over  a  series  of 
years.  The  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  the  carriageway  pavements  and 
footways  in  London  is  nominal,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  amount  ex- 
pended under  this  head  is  due  to  the  retention  of  macadam  roads,  which 
are  maintained  as  such  owing  to  the  exigencies  due  to  local  circumstances. 
The  low  cost  of  maintenance  is  obtained  by  laying  down  the  pavements  in 
the  best  possible  manner,  and  making  all  repairs  at  once  when  needed,  so 
that  the  pavements  are  always  in  a  superior  condition,  and  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance is  reduced  thereby  to  a  minimum. 

THE    CARE    OF    PAVEMENTS.f 

Professor  J.  S.  Newberry  also  gives  some  good  advice  in  a 
paper  on  "  The  Street  Pavements  of  New  York,"  published  in  the 
School  of  Mines  Quarterly  for  July,  in  which  he  clearly  points  out 
what  is  so  little  appreciated  here,  that  even  the  best  pavements 
require  constant  and  prompt  attention,  saying : 

In  a  recent  visit  to  Washington  I  found  some  of  the  streets  in  a  bad 
condition.  Even  on  Fourteenth  Street,  in  front  of  the  Treasury  building, 
the  asphalt  pavement  is  full  of  holes,  and  the  condition  of  this  great 
thoroughfare  has  led  to  an  opinion  which  I  found  quite  prevalent,  that 
asphalt  was  only  adapted  to  streets  where  traffic  was  not  great  and  the 

*xv,  485.     f  xx,  155. 


STREET     OPENING.  229 

vehicles  were  light.  This  is  a  mistake,  however.  There  is  no  street  in 
America,  or  elsewhere  in  the  world,  that  has  as  much  traffic  as  Cheapside, 
London,  and  among  the  vehicles  which  pass  through  it  are  omnibuses, 
loaded  with  passengers  inside  and  on  top,  carts  of  all  descriptions,  and, 
heaviest  of  all,  the  trucks  of  the  great  brewers,  with  their  enormous  horses 
and  tons  of  ale  and  porter.  And  yet  Cheapside  is  paved  with  asphalt,  and 
is  as  smooth  as  a  house-floor.  The  secret  of  its  perfection  is  the  thorough 
manner  in  which  the  pavement  is  laid  and  the  incessant  care  given  to  it. 
In  nothing  is  the  axiom  truer  than  in  the  asphalt  pavements,  "that  a  stitch 
in  time  saves  nine."  The  material  has  little  hardness,  and  if  from  irregular 
settling  of  the  road-bed  or  local  violence  a  break  occurs,  the  passing  wheels 
rapidly  shear  off  the  sides  of  the  hole,  and  it  soon  assumes  formidable 
dimensions.  In  London  this  is  prevented  by  constant  watchfulness  ;  per- 
sons are  employed  to  traverse  the  street  with  a  light  repairing  outfit,  and 
wherever  a  defect  is  observed,  this  is  patched  at  once,  and  so  effectually 
that  the  spot  cannot  be  distinguished.  The  contractors  who  lay  the  pave- 
ments agree  to  keep  them  in  order  for  fifteen  years,  at  a  price  which  does 
not  average  more  than  a  few  cents  a  square  yard. 

Our  people  seem  to  think  that  no  pavement  is  a  good  one  unless  when 
once  laid  it  will  for  ever  take  care  of  itself  ;  but  there  is  no  such  pavement. 
Even  our  rough  stone  roadways  would  pay  excellent  interest  on  the  expen- 
diture necessary  for  constant  inspection  and  repairs  promptly  made  when 
needed. 

Such  articles  as  these,  and  others  like  that  of  Clemens  Herschel 
on  "  The  Science  of  Road  Making,"  should  go  far  to  direct  this 
awakened  public  interest  into  intelligent  and  effective  lines  of  action 
and  insure,  for  instance,  that  the  $3,000,000  recently  appropriated 
for  improving  the  pavements  of  New  York  City  shall  be  expended 
to  the  best  possible  advantage.  Such  an  object-lesson  to  the  rest 
of  the  country  as  a  well-paved  metropolis  could  not  fail  to  be  of 
incalculable  value,  and  it  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped  that  the  oppor- 
tunity now  presented  to  teach  this  lesson  may  not  be  lost  through 
the  ignorance  or  indifference  of  any  one  in  authority. 

We  do  not  believe  that  it  will  be,  and  we  find  our  strongest 
reason  for  this  belief  in  what  certainly  seems  to  be  an  aroused  and 
enlightened  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  good  pavement  and  plenty 
of  it. 

CLEANING    PAVEMENTS    IN    THE    CITY    OF    LONDON.* 

From  the  last  report  of  Mr.  William  Haywood,  Engineer  of  the 
city,  which,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  a  small  portion  only  of  the 
great  metropolis,  we  gather  some  interesting  items  as  to  the  pres- 
ent ideas  of  the  English  engineers  on  pavements. 

The  carriageways  on  portions  of  three  streets  have  been  laid 
with  Val  de  Travers  compressed  asphalt.  Another  street  which  had 
been  paved  with  Henson's  wood  pavement  was  also  relaid  in  the 
same  asphalt,  the  wood  having  become  in  bad  condition. 

*  xvi,  347, 


230  STREET     OPENING. 

Four  streets  had  been  laid  with  Limmer  compressed  asphalt.  Two 
others  which  had  been  paved  with  wood,  and  were  in  bad  condition, 
were  also  relaid  with  Limmer  asphalt. 

Wood  pavement  was  renewed  in  three  streets  and  parts  of 
streets. 

Granite  was  used  in  two  streets,  but  the  "  relaying  of  streets 
with  granite  diminishes  yearly,  wood  and  asphalt  (principally  the 
latter)  gradually  being  substituted  for  granite  in  the  city." 

For  footways  Val  de  Travers  compressed  asphalt  was  used  in 
four  streets,  Limmer  asphalt  in  six  streets,  and  stone  in  five  streets. 

The  whole  of  the  carriageways  are  swept  once  daily,  the  main 
thoroughfares,  in  wet  weather,  swept  a  second  time  during  the 
day. 

In  addition  to  the  general  cleansing  of  the  whole  surface,  the 
street  orderly  system  was  in  operation  on  the  carriageways  of  all  the 
main  thoroughfares,  about  150  boys  being  employed  for  that  pur- 
pose. The  great  advantage  of  this  street  orderly  system  is  most 
apparent  in  wet  weather,  the  thoroughfares  where  they  are  employed 
being  at  such  times  in  a  much  greater  state  of  cleanliness  than  they 
are  elsewhere. 

The  work  of  cleansing  the  main  thoroughfares  often  begins  as 
early  as  two,  three  or  four  o'clock  in  the  morning.  The  street 
orderlies  then  take  up  the  work  at  about  7.30  A.  M.,  and  cease  work 
at  about  4.30  p.  M.;  late  in  the  evening,  when  the  weather  permits, 
or  the  condition  of  the  surface  renders  it  necessary,  the  carriage- 
way pavements  are  washed.  The  cleansing  ot  the  carriageways  in 
the  main  streets  is,  therefore,  almost  continuously  going  on. 

The  quantity  of  water  used  during  the  year  1886  for  washing 
the  streets  and  courts  was  about  2,247,790  gallons.  The  number  of 
nights  when  the  water  was  used  was  88. 

The  footivay  pavements  are  swept  by  the  Commission  whenever 
it  is  necessary,  and  in  wet  weather  those  in  the  main  thoroughfares 
are  cleansed  with  squeegees  during  the  day.  It  is  a  statutory  obli- 
gation on  the  part  of  the  occupiers  of  property  to  keep  the  foot- 
ways clean  in  front  of  their  premises,  an  obligation  but  little  attended 
to  by  the  inhabitants  in  any  part  of  the  city. 

The  courts  and  alleys  inhabited  by  the  poorer  classes  were 
washed  with  jet  and  hose  twice  a  week  between  May  and  the  end  of 
October.  A  very  few  places  are  washed  nightly  throughout  the 
year  for  special  reasons. 

The  street  orderlies  and  scavengers  have  for  some  years  been 
occupied  at  times  in  strewing  sand  and  gravel  upon  the  streets  which 
have  the  greatest  traffic.  The  average  quantity  so  strewn  during 
the  last  three  years  has  been  about  650  cubic  yards,  and  the  ten- 


STREET     OPENING.  231 

dency  is  for  it  to  increase.  The  extra  work  in  removing  this  quan- 
tity of  material  when  converted  into  mud  is,  in  some  states  of  the 
weather,  very  great  indeed,  especially  from  wood  pavements.  This 
circumstance  also  adds  to  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  streets  clean, 
as^well  as  to  the  cost  of  cleansing. 

The  engineer  complains  of  the  trouble  arising  from  the  collec- 
tion of  house  refuse,  owing  to  the  abuse  of  the  privilege  allowed  of 
placing  their  dust  and  refuse  on  the  footways  in  receptacles  of 
insufficient  size,  or  with  none  at  all. 


CHAPTER   VII. 


NOTES. 

EXPERIENCE    WITH    ASPHALT    AND    OTHER    PAVEMENTS   IN    THE    CITY 

OF    LONDON.* 

Continuing  our  account  of  experience  in  England,  we  come  next 
to  a  series  of  reports  on  the  pavements  in  the  "  City  of  London ' 
proper,  where  the  travel  is  probably  more  per  unit  of  width  than  in 
any  other  city  in  the  world.  We  are  indebted  for  the  information  to 
William  Haywood,  Esq.,  Engineer  and  Surveyor  to  the  Commission- 
ers of  Sewers  of  the  city,  and  the  reports  date  from  1886  back  to 
1853.  The  first  wood  pavement  seems  to  have  been  laid  there  in  1839- 
One  laid  in  1842  up  to  1853  had  had  two  renewals,  making  the  average 
total  cost  (including  ^d.  per  annum  for  repairs)  to  be  is.  n^/.  per 
year.  Granite  for  the  same  time  cost  g^d.  total  per  year.  To  the  cost 
above  for  wood  should  be  added  about  \\d.  for  sanding  to  prevent 
slipperiness.  The  duration  of  granite  in  this  statement  is  taken  at 
twenty-five  years. 

The  practice  is  to  lay  the  new  granite  in  the  streets  carrying  the 
heaviest  traffic,  then  after  a  certain  amount  of  wear  to  remove  it, 
redress  it  as  required,  and  lay  in  second-class  streets,  and,  finally, 
after  a  second  removal,  it  is  placed  in  streets  with  least  traffic  on 
them.  The  dressings  are  used  in  macadam,  and  finally  the  worn-out 
stones  take  the  same  course. 

Statistics  are  given  of  a  granite  pavement  on  London  Bridge* 
where  it  lasted  twelve  years  under  this  enormous  traffic  before 
renewal.  The  stones,  originally  9  inches  deep  and  6  wide,  had  worn 
down  an  average  of  2  inches.  The  cost  per  year  was  ^\d.  for 
maintenance  and  is.  io|^/.  for  laying,  or  2s.  ^d  per  year. 

In  the  Poultry,  another  very  busy  street,  the  wear  in  six  years 
was  i£  inches. 

From  a  table  given  we  learn  that  the  first  squared  granite  blocks 
were  laid  down  in  1828  and  were  not  renewed  for  from  sixteen  to 
twenty-five  years.  These  were  6  inches  square  by  9  inches  deep. 
The  3  and  4  inch  granite  cubes  were  introduced  in  1844,  and  bore 
the  very  heavy  traffic  of  Cheapside  and  similar  streets  for  seven  to 
nine  years  before  relaying,  many  of  the  blocks  being  still  fit  for  use. 

*  xvii,  150. 


NOTES.  233 

Up  to  1852,  of  21  wood  pavements,  the  time  down  before  renewal 
ran  from  twenty-three  months  up  to  eight  and  one-half  years,  the 
larger  number  lasting  less  than  four  years. 

There  are  about  51  miles  of  public  ways  in  the  "city,"  con- 
taining 441,250  square  yards  of  carriageway  and  over  300,000  square 
yards  footway. 

The  next  report  in  the  series  dates  1870,  and  contains  an  account 
of  a  pavement  called  "  McDonnell's  Patent  Adamantean"  composed 
of  broken  stones  not  over  3  inches  in  diameter  imbedded  in  asphalt, 
and  laid  in  blocks  18x12  inches  and  6  inches  deep,  with  j-inch  joints 
filled  with  asphalt. 

An  interesting  case  is  reported  where  suit  was  brought  by  the 
owner  of  a  building  against  the  Commissioners  for  damages  caused 
by  raising  the  grade  of  the  street  so  that  he  had  to  use  steps  to  go 
down  to  his  property.  The  case  was  decided  on  final  appeal  in 
favor  of  the  Commissioners,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  done  in  the 
interest  of  public  traffic. 

The  report  states  that  since  1867  the  Commission  has  removed 
all  dust,  ashes  and  trade  refuse. 

The  street  "orderly"  system,  and  erection  of  iron  bins  along  the 
sidewalks  for  the  reception  of  the  manure  collected,  was  begun  at  that 
time  and  has  been  continued  to  the  present. 

The  average  amount  of  material  removed  per  week,  not  includ- 
ing snow,  was  97  2 J  loads. 

The  usual  requirements  as  to  maintenance  are  as  follows :  In  the 
case  of  asphalt  pavements,  the  contractors  for  the  pavement  when  new 
agree  to  maintain  it  in  good  repair  for  two  years  without  cost  to  the 
city,  and  after  this  for  fifteen  years  more  at  a  price  per  square  yard 
per  annum  named  at  the  time  of  bidding  and  based  on  the  total  area 
paved.  The  pavement  to  be  in  good  condition  (to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  engineer)  at  the  end  of  seventeen  years,  and  to  weigh  at  that 
time  not  less  than  a  given  amount  per  square  yard. 

For  wood  pavements  the  agreement  is  entirely  similar  except  the 
provision  as  to  weight. 

The  report  of  1871  mentions  the  first  laying  of  granite  blocks 
with  wide  joints,  and  filling  with  small  pebbles,  and  a  composition 
of  pitch  and  creosote  oil  poured  hot. 

Observations  made  that  year  show  that  there  were  fewer  falls  of 
horses  from  slipping  on  pavements  of  compressed  asphalt  than  on  the 
ordinary  granite  pavement. 

Experiments  were  made  that  year  on  melting  snow  from  the 
streets  by  steam  and  gas. 

On  account  of  disturbance  of  the  streets  for  laying  pipes  of 
various  kinds  subways  are  pointed  out  as  the  only  remedy.  They 
were  then  in  use  in  four  streets. 


234  NOTES. 

It  is  interesting  to  notice  in  all  the  reports  thus  far,  frequent 
mention  of  street  widenings,  which  have  done  so  much  towards 
relieving  the  street  traffic  during  recent  years. 

In  1872  mention  is  made  of  the  failure  of  a  pavement  consisting 
of  blocks  of  compressed  asphalt  laid  on  concrete  and  grouted  with 
bitumen.  These  were  13x6^  inches  and  2^  inches  deep.  Much 
consideration  was  given  to  asphalt  pavements  this  year. 

The  first  specimen  of  the  regular  Nicholson  wood  pavement  was 
laid  also,  and  as  asphalt  was  considered  unsuitable  for  grades  steeper 
than  one  in  sixty,  wood  is  suggested  as  a  possible  substitute  in  such 
localities,  taking  the  place  of  the  asphalt. 

Complaint  is  still  made  of  the  disturbance  of  the  streets  for 
laying  of  pipes. 

In  1873,  the  Adamantean  pavement  laid  three  years  before,  is 
reported  upon.  It  showed  serious  wear  at  the  end  of  one  year,  at 
the  end  of  eighteen  months  received  extensive  repairs,  and  in  two 
years  was  so  bad  that  further  payments  upon  it  were  withheld. 

A  pavement  of  Trinidad  bitumen,  broken  stone,  chalk,  etc.,  laid 
hot,  was  proven  to  be  a  failure;  also,  one  consisting  of  a  mixture  of 
certain  oils,  caustic  lime,  pitch,  sawdust,  etc. 

A  pavement  of  compressed  asphalt  from  Seyssel  rock  (Societe* 
Francaise  des  Asphalte),  also  from  Montrotier  asphalt,  proved 
enduring. 

Experiments  also  showed  that  such  pavements  would  not  aid 
in  spreading  fire. 

Patent  wood  pavements  of  various  kinds  began  to  be  experi- 
mented with. 

A  footway  of  Portland  cement  laid  under  pressure  was  also  put 
down. 

Seven  street-sweeping  machines  are  reported  in  use. 
The  washing  down  of  streets  paved  with  asphalt  begun  in  1866, 
and  was  still  under  trial  as  an  experiment. 

It  would  seem  from  a  statement  made  here  that  the  city  retains 
full  control  of  the  subways  under  the  streets. 

More  streets  were  torn  up  for  pipes  of  the  Gas  Company  and 
Hydraulic  Pressure  Company. 

Conflicts  of  authority  are  noted  between  the  Commission  and 
Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  as  to  control  of  certain  streets,  etc. 

A  separate  report  was  made  this  year  on  asphalt  pavements.  The 
tests  of  thickness  by  pieces  cut  out,  weighed  for  compressed  asphalt 
from  about  i6|  to  22  pounds  per  square  foot;  the  original  thickness 
being  about  2  to  2\  inches  and  reduced  thickness  T\  to  }  of  an  inch 
less.  It  would  seem  to  indicate  less  care  in  compression  in  some 
cases  than  in  others. 


NOTES.  235 

In  1874  a  patent  "asphalt "  pavement,  consisting  of  tar,  cement, 
sand,  and  sawdust,  laid  2^  inches  thick,  while  hot,  under  a  pressure 
of  112  pounds  per  square  inch,  on  concrete  foundation,  was  tried, 
and  taken  up  in  two  months. 

Another,  called  a  metallic  asphalt,  consisting  of  blocks  2x2  feet 
and  4  inches  thick,  made  up  of  manufactured  "asphalt"  and  burnt 
ballast,  also  failed  in  the  same  time. 

This  year  the  "  Court  of  Common  Council"  resolved,  "  That  in 
their  opinion  tramways  in  the  'City'  of  London  will  occasion  greater 
inconvenience  to  the  general  public  and  to  the  traffic  within  the  city 
than  they  will  conduce  to  the  convenience  of  the  public." 

Comparative  Advantages  of  Wood  and  Asphalt. — A  special  report 
made  this  year  on  asphalt  and  wood  pavements  gives  conclusions  as 
follows:  Asphalt  is  less  noisy  than  granite  and  wood  less  than 
asphalt.  Asphalt  needs  close  attention  to  repairs  or  is  speedily 
knocked  to  pieces.  Wood  is  in  time  unequally  worn,  and  causes 
more  jolting  and  noise  than  when  new;  disturbing  those  inside  of 
carriages,  however,  the  most.  Large  blocks  with  wide  joints  wear 
more  unequally  than  small  blocks  with  close  joints.  Asphalt  is 
smoother,  cleaner,  and  drier.  Water  remains  longer  on  wood  and 
dirt  remains  in  the  joints.  The  smell  mentioned  in  connection  with 
wood  has  caused  no  complaints,  and,  on  the  contrary,  people  living 
on  line  of  streets  paved  with  it  are  anxious  to  have  it  continued. 
Asphalt  is  most  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and,  on  the  whole,  most  pleas- 
ant to  travel  upon.  Both  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  but  this 
is  most  difficult  with  wood.  Washing  is  the  best  method  for  all 
pavements.  This  makes  asphalt  slippery,  but  does  not  affect  wood. 
One  can  be  laid  about  as  fast  as  the  other.  In  good  weather  125  to 
129  yards  laid  per  day.  Asphalt  is  easily  repaired  and  wood  less 
so,  and  not  so  permanently. 

As  to  slipperiness,  it  was  found  in  Paris  that  i  horse  in  1,308  slipped 
on  granite,  and  one  in  1,409  on  asphalt.  An  extended  series  of  obser- 
vations for  fifty  days  in  London,  with  weather  mostly  dry  and  cold, 
the  asphalt  sanded,  when  wet,  gave  one  fall  for  each  horse  traveling 
191  miles  on  asphalt  and  330  on  wood.  On  wet  days  this  became 
respectively  192  and  432  miles.  The  complete  falls  were  in  the 
ratio  of  about  i  wood  to  4  asphalt.  The  wood  gives  more  chance 
to  the  horse  to  save  himself,  while  a  small  quantity  of  mud  makes 
asphalt  very  slippery.  It  is  more  difficult  for  the  same  reason  for  a 
horse  to  get  up  from  the  latter. 

Wood,  on  the  contrary,  seems  to  be  more  slippery  when  frost 
and  snow  prevail.  It  is  not  so  safe  at  ordinary  times  to  drive  fast 
on  asphalt  as  on  wood  ;  and  a  horse  can  be  stopped  quicker  on  the 
latter,  except  in  frost. 


236  NOTES. 

Compressed  asphalt  in  all  cases  proved  more  durable  than  other 
asphalts.  The  opinion  is  expressed  that  no  asphalt  will  last  more 
than  four  to  six  years  without  much  repairs,  and  that  their  entire 
surface  must  be  renewed  in  from  six  to  ten  years.  The  cost  reported 
on  eight  compressed  asphalts  at  the  date  of  the  report  for  whole 
cost  and  maintenance  for  the  seventeen-year  term  was,  per  year, 
from  is.  A^d.  to  2s.  4^/.,  the  average  being  is.  8^/. 

At  the  same  date  wood  pavements  were  reported,  under  a  heavy 
traffic,  as  lasting  nine  to  eleven  and  one-quarter  years,  the  total  sur- 
face having  been  relaid  at  least  once,  and  additional  blocks  inserted 
from  time  to  time,  the  mean  total  cost  per  annum  being  2s.  *j\d.  for 
those  under  heaviest  traffic  and  2s.  ^\d.  for  lighter  traffic. 

In  1875  Ludgate  Circus  was  completed,  giving  a  diameter  of 
1 60  feet,  and  greatly  relieving  the  consequent  traffic  at  that  point. 

A  large  number  of  patent  wood  pavements  laid  down  for  experi- 
ment, replacing  granite  blocks. 

Cleansing  of  the  footways  begun  by  the  Commission  in  1872  was 
continued,  and  a  method  of  sprinkling  streets  by  means  of  perfo- 
rated pipes  laid  along  the  curbs  put  in  operation  as  an  experiment. 

The  slipperiness  of  asphalt  had  become  a  subject  of  complaint, 
and  sand  recommended  as  a  remedy,  sparingly  used. 

In  1876  the  granite  sets  with  "asphalt  "  joints,  laid  three  years 
before,  were  found  to  be  in  very  bad  condition,  as  it  was  impracti- 
cable to  remove  blocks  for  repairs  without  considerable  expense,  the 
smallest  repair  requiring  a  boiler  and  special  heating  apparatus. 
The  pavement  was  a  noisy  one  also. 

The  apparatus  for  removing  snow  by  melting  was  used,  and  the 
cost  of  melting  a  cubic  yard  found  to  be  nj^.,  192  feet  of  gas  melt- 
ing one  yard.  Salt  was  then  used,  and  then  forced  towards  the  gul- 
lies by  hand  labor. 

This  year  another  patent  apparatus  for  washing  streets  from 
pipes  along  the  centre  was  put  in  place  for  trial. 

A  number  of  new  "  resting-places,"  or  refuges  for  pedestrians 
in  crossing  public  streets,  were  constructed.  This  very  desirable 
improvement  is  worthy  of  imitation  in  many  of  our  crowded 
cities. 

In  1887  another  of  the  patent  pavements,  called  "  Barnetfs 
iron  asphalt"  proved  a  failure,  and  the  company  threw  up  its  con- 
tracts for  maintenance. 

The  compressed  asphalt  seemed  steadily  growing  in  favor,  and 
also  certain  styles  of  wood. 

This  year  a  pavement  of  blocks  composed  of  clay  highly  compressed 
and  hard-burned  was  laid.  The  blocks  were  3^x8  inches  and  6 


NOTES.  237 

inches  deep,  weighing  12  pounds.  These  were  laid  on  "ordinary 
ballast,"  with  J-inch  joints  filled  with  ballast.  The  removal  of 
granite  block  pavements  continued. 

The  use  of  salt  on  the  streets  for  removing  snow  ("  coupled 
with  quick  and  careful  sweeping  so  soon  as  the  salt  has  done  its 
work  ")  was  continued  as  the  most  effective  means. 

In  1879  Davisoris  patent  iron  and  asphalt  pavement  was  laid, 
consisting  of  iron  frames  with  projecting  iron  studs,  set  in  mastic 
asphalt  on  a  concrete  foundation.  A  similar  one  with  lead  disks 
proved  a  failure  in  three  months.  Up  to  this  date  thirteen  kinds 
of  asphalt  pavements  and  eleven  of  wood  had  been  laid,  so  that 
nearly  every  portion  of  the  great  arterial  thoroughfares  were 
paved  with  one  of  these. 

In  1880  the  iron  and  asphalt  pavement  and  one  of  the  mastic 
asphalts  proved  failures,  also  a  "  noiseless  granite  "  pavement  laid 
on  felt,  etc. 

This  year  was  laid  a  sidewalk  pavement  consisting  of  slabs 
made  of  pulverized  granite  sifted  to  the  fineness  of  sand,  mixed 
with  Portland  cement  and  water,  and  after  setting,  dipped  in  a  sili- 
cate of  soda.  A  nuisance  of  steam  discharged  into  sewers,  and 
escaping  into  streets,  etc.,  was  abated  by  the  Commission  forcing 
the  construction  of  a  special  sewer  by  the  offenders. 

In  1880  another  subway  for  pipes,  etc.,  was  constructed  by 
parties  owning  property  on  each  side  of  a  newly-opened  street.  A 
specimen  of  the  so-called  granolithic  pavement,  made  of  crushed 
granite  and  lime  or  cement,  was  laid.  Wood  and  asphalt  had  now 
almost  entirely  replaced  granite  in  the  main  thoroughfares  and  many 
of  the  minor  streets,  asphalt  predominating.  Three  more  "  resting- 
places  "  were  introduced. 

The  construction  of  subways  was  again  forcibly  urged  as  the 
only  means  by  which  to  prevent  tearing  up  of  the  streets. 

In  1882  the  washing  of  streets  by  a  hose  and  jets  having  been 
in  use  two  years  was  reported  upon  favorably.  In  the  same  year  a 
special  report  gives  the  annual  cost  of  maintenance  only  of  various 
pavements  as  follows : 

The  average  for  16  of  Val  de  Travers  compressed  asphalt  was 
is.  per  yard  ;  of  7  Limmer  compressed  asphalt,  <)\d.\  of  5  Societe 
Franoais  des  Asphalte's  compressed  asphalt,  \\d.\  of  9  improved 
wood,  i2j</. ;  of  1 8  of  all  kinds  of  wood,  13^.;  and  of  5  granite 
block,  5J</. 

In  1883,  the  reports  states  that  "the  most  favorable  period  for 
using  water  (for  cleansing  streets)  is  when  the  surfaces  of  the  wood 
and  asphalt  are  in  a  moist  and  greasy  condition,"  the  mud  being  then 
most  easily  removed.  Street  washing  was  done  on  187  nights. 


238  NOTES. 

In  1884  the  so-called  International  pavement,  consisting  of  large 
blocks  of  asphaltum  and  crushed  limestone,  highly  compressed,  and 
laid  on  a  concrete  foundation,  of  which  a  specimen  was  laid  three 
years  before,  proved  a  failure.  The  Asphaltic  Wood  Pavement  Com- 
pany also  failed.  The  large  amount  of  sand  required  on  the  asphalt 
pavements  and  the  removal  of  the  mud  formed  is  reported  as 
requiring  50  per  cent,  more  laborers  to  care  for  the  streets. 

In  1885  complaints  were  made  of  smell  arising  from  a  wood 
pavement.  The  street  was  one  on  which  the  sun  rarely  shines,  and 
not  being  well  adapted  for  wood  it  was  replaced  by  asphalt.  The 
Henson  Wood  Paving  Company  failed. 

In  1886  the  engineer  reports  all  the  wood  pavement  companies  as 
either  bankrupts  or  as  having  failed  to  fulfill  their  contracts  but 
three. 

This  ends  the  lists  of  reports  received  to  the  present  time. 
There  are  many  other  matters  treated  in  them  ;  and  being  the  sum- 
mary of  the  experience  of  such  a  dense  population,  the  results  are 
especially  valuable  to  city  engineers  everywhere. 

TRAFFIC    IN    PARIS.* 

With  a  view  to  testing  the  comparative  durability  of  pavement 
in  Paris,  statistics  have  been  prepared  showing  the  number  of 
vehicles  and  horses  passing  every  twenty-four  hours  through  the 
principal  streets  of  Paris.  Every  twenty-four  hours  there  pass 
through  the  Rue  de  Rivoli,  23,233  vehicles  and  42,035  horses; 
Avenue  de  1'Opera,  29,460  vehicles;  Boulevard  Sebastopol,  46,318; 
Boulevard  des  Italiens,  30,125;  Boulevard  des  Madeleine,  17,524; 
Place  de  1'Etoile,  18,311;  Rue  de  Pont-Neuf,  20,082;  Rue  Lafay- 
ette, 12,210. 

OBSERVATIONS   ON    STREET    TRAFFIC  AND  STREET    PAVEMENTS.f 

A  paper  of  much  interest  was  read  by  Captain  F.  V.  Greene  of 
the  U.  S.  Engineers,  at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers  in  this  city  on  December  16,  1885.  Under  the 
title  "An  account  of  Some  Observations  of  Street  Traffic,"  it  gave 
the  results  of  very  extended  observations  on  the  street  traffic  in  the 
United  States,  with  reference  to  weight  of  vehicles  and  loads,  char- 
acter of  pavements,  width  of  streets,  etc.  These  observations  were 
made  by  a  corps  of  observers  in  ten  cities,  who  reported  to  Captain 
Greene.  The  cities  were  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Chicago,  Boston, 
St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  Buffalo,  Louisville  and  Omaha,  and  included 
notes  on  thirty-six  streets. 

*vi,  475.     fxiii,  81. 


NOTES.  239 

The  observations  were  fnade  between  7  A.  M.  and  2  p.  M.,  on 
six  consecutive  days  at  each  place.  They  were  first  recorded  by 
one  or  more  observers  by  the  punch  and  "  trip-slip  "  method  in  use 
by  car  conductors,  slips  of  different  colors  being  used  for  vehicles  of 
different  tonnage.  A  summary  of  each  hour's  observations  was  then 
transferred  to  a  daily  report  made  on  a  printed  form.  These  were 
then  sent  to  the  author  by  whom  the  computation  of  total  tonnage, 
tonnage  by  vehicle,  and  tonnage  per  foot  of  width  were  made.  The 
accidents  to  horses  were  also  observed  and  recorded  in  three  classes 
— viz.,  falls  on  knees,  falls  on  haunches,  and  complete  falls.  Record 
was  also  made  of  the  width  and  grade  of  the  street,  state  of  the 
weather,  temperature  of  the  air,  average  speed  of  the  vehicles  and 
length  of  street  on  which  accidents  were  observed  and  recorded. 
On  the  back  of  the  printed  form  of  report  full  instructions  were 
given  for  the  observers,  especially  in  regard  to  the  weight  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  vehicles,  and  every  precaution  was  taken  to  have  the 
observations  made  on  a  uniform  system,  and  to  eliminate  the  per- 
sonal equation  of  the  observer  and  leave  as  little  as  possible  to  his 
judgment. 

Each  day's  report  was  subscribed  and  sworn  to  by  the  observers 
before  a  notary  public ;  these  reports  were  submitted  to  the  members 
of  the  society  present  for  their  examination.  The  pavements  on 
the  streets  observed  were  of  granite,  asphalt  and  wood.  In  compiling 
the  results  as  to  traffic  the  standard  for  comparison  was  the 
average  daily  tonnage  per  foot  of  width.  This  was  found  to  range 
from  273  tons  on  Broadway,  New  York,  to  seven  tons  on  Olive 
Street  in  St.  Louis.  The  average  weight  per  vehicle  varied  from 
.68  ton  on  Fifth  A. venue  in  New  York  to  2.08  tons  on  a  part  of 
Wabash  Avenue  in  Chicago.  Several  remarkable  instances  were 
given  of  the  manner  in  which  smooth  asphalt  streets  have  drawn 
the  traffic  away  from  stone  pavements — the  most  noticeable  instance 
being  in  St.  Louis,  where,  on  Olive  Street,  paved  with  granite,  the 
daily  traffic  per  foot  of  width  is  only  seven  tons,  while  on  Locust 
Street  it  is  103  tons,  the  two  streets  being  parallel,  adjacent  and 
similar  in  every  respect  and  paved  at  the  same  time.  Comparison 
was  also  made  with  the  London  observations,  showing  a  very  much 
larger  traffic  (as  high  as  422  tons  on  one  street)  in  the  latter  city,  and 
the  cause  of  the  difference  was  stated  to  be  the  absence  of  street 
cars  and  the  large  number  of  cabs  and  omnibuses  thus  rendered 
necessary.  Reference  was  also  made  to  the  observations  of  Messrs. 
Deacon  and  Stayton,  in  England,  on  the  comparative  wear  of  dif- 
ferent classes  of  pavement  under  different  amounts  of  traffic  as 
actually  observed;  and  the  desirability  of  keeping  such  records  by 
municipal  engineers  in  this  country  was  pointed  out. 


240  NOTES. 

In  regard  to  accidents,  the  standard  for  comparison  was  the 
distance  traveled  before  an  accident  occurred.  This  was  obtained 
by  multiplying  the  distance  over  which  the  observations  were 
recorded  by  the  number  of  horses,  and  dividing  the  product  by  the 
number  of  accidents.  The  general  result  was  :  on  asphalt,  583 
miles  ;  granite,  413  miles  ;  wood  272  miles.  There  were  only  three 
sets  of  observations  on  wood,  and  hence  as  to  this  class  of  pavement 
the  results  are  inconclusive.  As  to  granite  and  asphalt,  the  large 
number  of  observations  (over  800,000  horses  and  81,000  miles 
traveled)  justified  the  conclusion  that  fewer  accidents  occur  on 
asphalt  than  on  granite.  This  agreed  with  the  result  of  similar 
observations  in  London,  although  in  the  latter  city,  from  local 
causes,  the  accidents  on  each  class  of  pavements  were  about  three 
times  as  numerous  as  in  the  cities  observed  in  America.  In  classi- 
fying the  accidents  it  was  found  that  the  falls  on  knees  were  much 
more  numerous  on  granite  pavements  than  on  asphalt.  The  cause 
of  this  was  pointed  out,  the  granite  blocks  being  too  wide  (about 
5  inches  instead  of  3)  to  afford  a  proper  footing  for  the  horses  ;  and 
the  falls  on  haunches  on  asphalt  being  due  to  sudden  pulling  up  and 
turning  of  the  horses  as  noted  in  nearly  every  case  in  the  reports. 

From  Capt.  Greene's  tables  it  is  evident  that  the  heaviest  traffic, 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  seeks  the  asphalt  pavement  in 
preference  to  either  granite  or  wood  ;  and  although  there  are  as  yet 
no  trustworthy  statistics  regarding  first  cost  and  maintenance,  Capt. 
Greene  favors  asphalt  as  the  universal  pavement. 

IRON    WHEELWAYS   IN    NEW    YORK    STREETS.* 

General  Roy  Stone,  who  was  for  some  time  General  Inspector 
of  Street  Pavements  when  General  John  Newton  was  Commissioner 
ot  Public  Works  in  New  York  City,  urges  that  a  pair  of  steel  rails  12 
inches  wide  be  laid  for  wagon  tracks  on  one  or  more  of  our  heavy 
trucking  streets  ;  the  rails  to  be  grooved  and  corrugated  to  prevent 
slipping. 

The  plan  of  providing  a  smooth  surface  for  the  wheels  of  ve- 
hicles is  not  entirely  new  ;  it  was  used  at  Pompeii,  and  is  still  in 
general  use  in  Northern  Italy,  where  two  parallel  lines  of  granite 
slabs,  24  inches  wide,  are  laid  28  inches  apart.  In  England  Mr. 
Walker  laid  two  lines  of  granite  tramways,  on  Commercial  Road, 
London,  many  years  ago,  of  stones  16  inches  wide,  12  inches  thick 
and  5  or  6  feet  long,  and  the  same  arrangement  was  to  be  found  in 
Liverpool  until  within  seven  or  eight  years.  It  is  now  thought  bet- 
ter to  make  all  of  the  street  pavement  smooth  enough  to  permit  its 
legitimate  use  as  a  roadway,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  any  granite  tram- 
ways are  now  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  larger  English  cities. 

*  Ed.  xx,  85. 


NOTES.  241 

If  we  can  never  emancipate  our  chief  city  from  the  ignorant 
influences  that  prescribed  the  noisy  granite  pavement  for  Fifth 
Avenue,  which  disgraces  that  street,  General  Stone's  project  might 
be  adopted  as  a  makeshift.  It  seems  high  time,  however,  that  the 
provincialism  which  has  characterized  the  views  of  its  citizens  as  to 
pavements  should  be  cast  aside,  and  that  they  should  unite  in  an 
effort  to  have  New  York  at  least  as  well  paved  as  other  cities  of 
approximate  wealth  and  importance.  There  is  no  street  in  New 
York  with  a  third  of  the  vehicular  traffic  of  Cheapside,  London,  yet 
that  has  been  paved  for  twelve  or  fourteen  years  with  compressed 
asphalt.  It  has  no  street  with  much  more  than  half  the  traffic  of 
the  Strand,  but  that  thoroughfare  has  for  several  years  been  paved 
with  wood.  Both  of  these  pavements  are  nearly  noiseless. 

The  shameful  neglect,  against  which  The  Engineering  and 
Building  Record  protested,  that  allowed  the  small  piece  of  wood 
pavement  on  Fifth  Avenue  to  go  to  ruin  in  the  course  of  four  or  five 
years,  when  such  pavements  on  the  Strand,  in  London,  last  nine 
years,  should  not  be  urged  as  an  argument  against  a  pavement  that 
would  be  such  a  luxury  for  residence  streets  of  suitable  width. 

If  we  are  to  be  condemned  in  perpetuity  to  noisy  granite  pave- 
ments the  width  of  the  stones  should  be  reduced  to  three  inches,  as 
is  the  practice  in  England,  and  the  joints,  which  should  be  narrowed 
proportionally,  should  be  thoroughly  calked,  so  that  they  could  not 
be  depositories  for  street  filth,  and  the  streets  could  then  be  better 
cleaned. 

EFFECT    ON    HEALTH    OF    NOISY    STREET    PAVEMENTS,* 

What  are  the  effects,  if  any,  upon  the  health  of  those  constantly 
exposed  to  it,  of  the  continuous  noise  and  roar  of  the  business 
streets  of  a  great  city  ?  We  are  not  now  referring  to  the  mere 
inconvenience  which  is  felt  in  localities  where  conversation  in  an 
ordinary  tone  of  voice  is  made  difficult  by  the  clangor  of  machinery 
or  by  the  rumble  of  street  traffic,  but  to  the  effects  produced  upon 
an  average  healthy  man  by  long  exposure  to  such  influences  as  to 
his  ability  to  work  and  as  to  his  enjoyment  of  life. 

That  noise  often  has  a  bad  effect  upon  a  sick  person  is  well 
known  ;  the  desirability  of  quiet  to  permit  of  restful  sleep  to  the 
weary  brain  is  admitted  by  all.  Even  in  cases  of  sickness,  however, 
there  is  a  great  difference  between  the  effects  produced  by  a  com- 
paratively steady,  continuous  rumble  or  roar,  such  as  that  of  a 
water-fall,  or  of  the  sea  on  the  beach,  or  even  of  the  ordinary 
passage  of  vehicles  over  a  stone  pavement,  and  a  sudden  intermit- 
tent interruption  of  silence  such  as  is  produced  by  the  clangor  of 

*  Ed.  xiv,  7. 


242 


NOTES. 


bells  or  the  passage  of  a  train  on  the  elevated  railway.  The  former, 
by  its  monotony,  may  be  aciually  soothing  and  lulling  in  its  effects, 
so  much  so  that  a  person  accustomed  to  it  may  at  first  find  it  diffi- 
cult to  sleep  in  a  place  that  is  absolutely  quiet,  while  the  latter 
always  cause  more  or  less  shock  to  the  person  enfeebled  by  disease, 
though  habit  may  do  much  to  lesson  the  perception  of  them. 

If  continued  noise  produces  any  effect  on  the  healthy  man  it 
must  be  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  due  to  the  increased  concentration 
of  attention  to  what  is  being  said  which  it  makes  necessary — to 
increase  of  strain,  in  other  words.  Clerks  and  accountants  employed 
in  noisy  localities  do  not  seem  to  find  any  special  difficulty  in  writ- 
ing, in  keeping  bcoks,  etc.,  so  long  as  they  are  in  good  health,  but 
if  they  come  to  the  office  a  little  below  par— say  with  a  slight  head- 
ache— then  they  sometimes  feel  that  the  noise  makes  it  more  diffi- 
cult to  add  up  a  long  column  of  figures  or  to  v/rite  an  important 
business  letter  with  clearness  and  accuracy,  that  it  increases  the 
strain  on  attention  to  the  matter  in  hand  very  much  as  it  does  in 
the  case  of  conversation. 

In  a  previous  editorial  we  have  referred  to  the  increasing  pre- 
valence of  affections  of  the  nervous  system  among  business  men, 
and  it  is  claimed  by  some  that  this  is  in  part  due  to  the  almost  inces- 
sant noise  to  which  they  are  exposed. 

As  it  is  not  possible  to  diminish  street  traffic,  the  only  remedy 
for  the  evil  is  to  provide  a  street  surface  which  shall  be  as  little 
resonant  as  is  consistent  with  durability  and  safety.  All  engineers 
who  have  written  on  the  subject  of  street  pavements  call  attention 
to  noiselessness  as  one  of  the  conditions  which  it  is  desirable  to 
secure,  yet  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether  in  actual  practice  suffi- 
cient attention  is  paid  to  this  requirement. 

Certainly  there  are  many  streets  in  New  York  City,  especially 
in  those  quarters  occupied  by  residences  of  the  better  class,  which 
have  unnecessarily  noisy  pavements.  In  this  respect  Washington  is 
much  superior  to  any  city  in  this  country,  and  the  work  of  its 
Engineer  Department  in  this  direction  for  the  last  ten  years  is 
worthy  of  special  commendation  and  of  imitation  elsewhere. 

It  is  true  that  these  smooth,  noiseless  pavements  are  not  suited 
to  the  requirements  of  heavy  traffic,  being  slippery  in  wet  weather, 
and  not  being  sufficiently  durable  under  such  circumstances  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  a  reasonable  economy  ;  but  there  are  many 
streets  in  all  cities  where  the  traffic  is  light,  and  these  considerations 
do  not  apply.  We  are  not  so  badly  off  as  Philadelphia  and  Balti- 
more, with  their  cobble-stone  pavements,  but  there  is  plenty  of  room 
for  improvement  here,  and  we  believe  that  public  opinion  will  be 
strongly  in  favor  of  the  man  or  men  who  set  to  work  to  bring  this 
improvement  about. 


NOTES.  243 

FIRST    COST    AND    MAINTENANCE.* 

Cedar-block  pavement  costs  in  Milwaukee,  laid  on  boards,  85 
•cents  per  square  yard.  In  St.  Paul,  creosoted  and  laid  after  the 
English  method,  $3.40.  In  London,  England,  the  treating  of  the 
blocks  by  chemicals  cost  $2.50  to  $4.83  per  yard,  and  cost  of  main- 
tenance each  year  20  per  cent,  of  cost.  In  Leaven  worth  and  Kan- 
sas City,  on  six  inches  of  concrete,  the  first  cost  is  $2.30  to  $2.63 
with  an  average  life  of  the  blocks  of  four  to  six  years,  when  the 
blocks  can  be  renewed  on  the  old  base. 

In  Omaha,  Colorado  sandstone  pavement  costs  $2.61  to  §2.67 
for  blocks  eight  inches  deep  on  eight  inches  of  sand,  and  Sioux 
Falls  granite  $2.53  on  sand  and  $5.09  on  broken  stone  and  sand 
foundation.  Asphalt  on  a  6-inch  concrete  base  cost  $2.98,  with  a 
money  guarantee  to  keep  it  in  perfect  order  for  five  years. 

In  Washington  granite  cost,  in  1884,  $2.50  to  $2.65. 

In  St.  Joseph,  the  cost  for  asphalt,  with  the  five  years' guarantee, 
was  $2.63  in  1886. 

In  Topeka  the  estimate  is  $3,  which  would  include  grading  of 
about  nine  inches  of  the  street. 

TESTS   OF    DURABILITY.f 

It  may  not  be  amiss  here  to  recall  the  experiments  so  carefully 
made  nine  years  ago  in  St.  Louis.  These  consisted  in  rolling  a  two- 
wheeled  cart  forward  end  back  over  two  strips  of  the  pavement  to 
be  tested  which  were  each  22  inches  \vide.  The  tires  were  each  2^- 
inches  wide,  and  loaded  to  8co  pounds  per  inch,  or  two  tons  total 
load.  The  heaviest  traffic  in  St.  Louis  was  75  tons  per  day  per  foot  of 
width,  but  the  average  for  business  streets  was  35  tons.  Estimating 
the  effect  of  horses'  hoofs  at  one  third  of  this,  50  ions  per  foot  was 
taken  as  a  standard.  The  total  number  of  revolutions  shown  by 
the  counter  attached  to  the  propelling  crank  corresponds  to  the 
total  number  of  double  trips'  (across  the  samples  and  back)  borne  by 
the  specimens  : 

If  R  =  number  of  such  revolutions,  or  2  R  =  number  of 

trips, 

L  =  total  load  in  tons  on  machine, 

W  =  sum   of     widths   of    the    two   samples   tested   in 
inches, 

— — — -  =  total  tons  carried  per  inch  of  width  of  specimen, 
5 1  —  tons  per  day  per  inch  width  on  the  streets. 

and —  —  -  .4.  £»  =  the  number  of  days  equivalent  wear  on  the 

streets  that  the  specimen  has  borne. 


*  xv,  375.     (Report  to_Common  Council  of  Topeka,  Kan.)    f  xv,  658. 


244  NOTES. 

The  samples  were  weighed  before  and  after  testing,  and  under 
this  load  of  800  pounds  per  inch  width  of  tire,  borne  for  a  period 
equal  to  eight  years  and  six  months  on  the  streets,  and  2j  years  of 
about  400  pounds  per  inch,  the  total  abrasion  of  the  fire-brick  pave- 
ment was  9  per  cent,  of  its  weight,  or  a  depth  of  f  inch.  The 
asphaltum  block  pavement  wore  under  same  traffic  14  per  cent,  but 
the  bricks  in  the  pavement  tested  were  about  one-half  of  them 
broken  and  but  one  of  the  asphaltum  blocks.  Granite  blocks  after 
a  test  equal  to  eight  years  and  seven  months  traffic  had  worn 
scarcely  appreciably,  while  limestone  had  lost  10  per  cent.,  and  in 
actual  traffic  would  have  lost  still  more  by  action  of  the  dements. 
As  a  result  of  all  the  tests  granite  blocks  were  chosen  for  use  on  all 
streets  having  heavy  traffic. 

These  tests  seem  to  bear  out  the  claims  that  are  made  in  favor 
of  brick  pavements  for  light  traffic. 

PAVEMENTS    IN    AMERICAN    CITIES.* 

Alderman  M.  S.  Chipman,  of  Waterbury,  Conn.,  has  been, 
investigating  street  pavements  in  other  cities  with  a  view  to  ascer- 
tain the  best  method  for  improving  the  condition  of  the  streets  of 
Waterbury.  In  November,  1888,  he  sent  out  to  various  cities  circu- 
lars asking  information  about  the  methods  in  vogue.  Some  of  the 
questions  were  as  follows  :  What  kind  of  street  pavements  do  you 
use  ?  Have  you  any  method  of  assessing  for  pavements  laid  ?  Is 
the  assessment  confined  to  the  streets  paved  ?  Is  this  basis  of 
assesment  the  cost  of  the  pavement  ?  How  much  are  horse  rail- 
roads assessed  if  tracks  are  in  streets  paved  ? 

The  following  is  a  tabulated  summary,  taken  from  the  Morning 
Telegraph  of  New  London,  Conn.,  of  the  replies  received  from  the 
following  cities  :  Albany,  Auburn,  Boston,  Buffalo,  Cambridge, 
Camden,  Elmira,  Hartford,  Hoboken,  Holyoke,  Lowell,  Meriden, 
Middletown,  New  Bedford,  New  Haven,  New  London,  Newton, 
Norwich,  Oswego,  Paterson,  Pawtucket,  Providence,  Rochester, 
Springfield,  Syracuse,  Troy,  Utica  and  Worcester  : 

Of  twenty-eight  cities  where  pavements  are  laid,  twenty -four  use  stone 
blocks,  some  use  granite  exclusively,  while  others  use  sand-stone,  granite 
or  trap  rock.  Five  cities  use  some  asphalt,  either  in  blocks  or  in  sheet.  In 
seventeen  cities  the  whole  cost  of  paving  falls  upon  the  city  at  large.  In 
eight  cities  the  whole  cost  of  paving  is  assessed  upon  the  abutting  prop- 
erty. In  three  cities  the  cost  is  divided  between  the  abutting  property  and 
the  city  at  large  in  the  proportion  of  twc^thirds  to  the  abutting  property 
and  one  third  upon  the  city  at  large,  these  last  named  being  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  and  Utica,  N.  Y.  In  all  cases  where  the  property  is 
assessed  the  assessment  is  upon  the  frontage  of  the  property,  or  approxi- 
mately on  the  frontage,  the  location  or  value  of  the  property  not  governing 

*xix,  133. 


NOTES.  245 

the  amount  at  all.  The  horse  railroad  companies  are  assessed  directly,  or 
are  required  to  pave  in  seventeen  cities  ;  are  not  assessed  in  six,  and  in  the 
others  they  either  do  their  own  paving  or  maintain  and  keep  in  repair  the 
space  between  their  rails  and  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  feet  outside  the 
rails.  In  twenty-one  cities  the  cost  of  paving  is  paid  from  the  general  tax  ; 
four  only  issue  bonds  or  improvement  certificates  bearing  interest.  Com- 
paring by  States  we  find  that  in  eight  Massachusetts  cities,  seven  use 
granite  blocks,  two  Rhode  Island  cities  use  granite  blocks.  In  none  of  the 
Massachusetts  cities  is  there  any  assessment  on  the  abutting  property.  In 
the  six  Connecticut  cities  three  use  the  granite  blocks.  In  the  six  Connec- 
ticut cities  five  put  the  whole  cost  upon  the  city  at  large,  while  one  places 
the  cost  upon  both  city  and  abuttors.  In  the  nine  New  York  cities  all  use 
stone  blocks.  In  six  the  whole  cost  falls  on  the  abutting  property.  In  two 
the  cost  is  upon  both  city  and  abuttors.  In  one  the  whole  cost  falls  on  the 
city  at  large.  The  three  New  Jersey  cities  all  use  stone  blocks  ;  two  of 
them  place  the  cost  on  the  abuttors  ;  one  places  the  cost  on  the  city  at 
large. 

PAVEMENTS    IN    OMAHA.* 

As  the  object  of  these  articles  is  to  give  the  results  of  experi- 
ence under  all  conditions  of  practice,  we  shall  in  the  present  article 
quote  from  the  experience  at  Omaha  as  detailed  by  Mr.  Rosewater 
in  the  report  for  1886.  As  is  well  known,  the  temperature  ranges 
here  are  extreme,  and  therefore  most  trying  on  any  material  used 
for  a  covering. 

Material  Used. — Until  1883  the  material  used  for  both  curbing 
and  paving  was  Nebraska  limestone.  This  disintegrates  rapidly 
under  the  action  of  frost,  and  was  also  high  in  price  owing  to  lack 
of  competition. 

Colorado  sandstone  is  much  better,  and  the  larger  part  of  the 
curbing  now  in  use  is  of  this  material.  To  prevent  a  monopoly, 
however,  Mankato  limestone  and  Berea  sandstone  are  admitted,  but 
they  are  softer  and  not  so  durable. 

The  result  of  competition  has,  however,  been  a  reduction  in 
price  in  the  Colorado  sandstone  of  at  least  16  per  cent. 

Up  to  1882  but  one  street  had  been  paved.  This  had  a  Telford 
macadam  12  inches  deep  of  Nebraska  limestone.  It  soon  wore  into 
ruts  and  became  covered  with  mud.  In  the  fall  of  that  year,  as  the 
result  of  an  investigation  in  other  cities,  "stone  and  sheet-asphaltum  " 
were  recommended  for  pavements  "  on  all  but  steep  thoroughfares, 
and  upon  grades  where  stone  blocks  would  not  afford  sufficient  foot- 
ing to  use  macadam." 

Payment. — The  charter  provided  that  street  railways  were  to 
pay  for  paving  within  their  lines,  the  city  paid  for  street  intersec- 
tions, and  property  owners  for  pavements  opposite  their  lots.  Funds 

*  xvi,  236. 


246  NOTES. 

were  raised  on  twenty- year  bonds  at  6  per  cent,  for  intersections. 
The  property  owners  paid  in  five  installments,  at  respectively  sixty 
days,  one,  two,  three,  and  four  years,  the  amcunt  being  at  first  paid 
by  "  district  bonds."  Later  on  the  time  of  payment  for  property 
holders  was  extended  to  ten  annual  payments.  The  majority  of  the1- 
property  holders  determine  on  the  material  to  be  used. 

A  bitter  controversy  was  brought  about  by  the  acceptance  of  a 
bid  to  lay  Sioux  Falls  stone  under  proposals  calling  for  granite.  The 
courts  finally  decided  that  it  was  a  granite.  The  result  has  been 
that  Colorado  stone  has  fallen  from  $3.49  in  1884  to  $2.60  in  1886, 
and  Sioux  Falls  stone  to  $2.60  as  against  $4.35.  Competition  has 
reduced  all  rates  except  that  for  asphaltum,  so  that  wood  and  stone 
are  the  most  recent  favorites. 

Forms  of  Cross-Section. — Two  widely  different  forms  of  cross- 
seclion  have  been  adopted  for  streets,  depending  on  whether  they 
were  provided  with  stcrm-water  sewers  or  not.  Where  these  are 
provided  the  gutters  are  shallow,  and  the  centre  of  the  street  is 
about  at  the  level  of  the  curbs. 

In  other  streets  a  deep,  flat,  V-shaped  gutter  is  used,  and  the 
street  centre  is  one  to  six  inches  below  the  curbs. 

Foundations. — As  to  foundations  for  pavements  the  experience 
seems  to  classify  them  in  order  of  merit  as  follows  :  (i)  concrete, 
(2)  broken  stone  and  sand,  and  (3)  sand.  Even  in  this  frigid 
climate  a  concrete  foundation  six  inches  thick  seems  to  be  ample  for 
alt  purposes  This  statement  is  made  with  the  reservation  that  the 
concrete  shall  be  put  down  under  competent  inspection.  No  great 
difference  in  result  was  found  from  the  use  of  the  various  sands  of 
the  neighborhood. 

Asphalt. — As  to  surface  material  for  pavements  sheet-asphaltum 
is  given  first  place  for  cleanliness,  lightness  of  traction,  and  non- 
absorbent  qualities.  It  requires  specialists  on  the  other  hand  for  its 
maintenance,  and  where  wind  and  moisture  collect  on  flat  grades  it 
rapidly  disintegrates.  For  this  reason  it  is  not  now  used  in  gutters. 
Along  street-car  tracks  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  provide  a  tooth- 
ing of  stone  to  prevent  formation  of  luts.  As  to  resisting  a  climate 
ranging  from  35°  Fahr.  below  zero  to  120°  Fahr.  above,  four  years' 
experience  decides  in  its  favor.  As  in  all  forms  of  block  paving 
cracks  are  developed  by  extreme  cold,  but  they  close  up  closely  in 
summer.  It  does  not  seem  adapted  to  grades  of  over  five  per  cent. 

^tone. — Sioux  Falls  stone  is  a  quartzite,  close-grained,  non- 
absorbent,  and  frost-proof.  It  does  not  break  as  evenly  as  granite 
or  sandstone,  and  as  it  will  probably  wear  slippery  it  is  recom- 
mended thst  the  blocks  be  limited  to  three  inches  thickness.  It 
withstands  the  heaviest  traffic. 


NOTES. 


247 


Colorado  sandstone  affords  a  good  footing,  and  seems  to  with- 
stand the  elements  well,  but  its  durability  under  wear  has  not  been 
fully  tested.  Wood  can  be  recommended  for  its  cheapness  ;  com- 
pared with  ihe  other  materials  for  durability  it  is  not  so  good. 

Maintenance. — As  to  maintenance  of  paving,  the  usual  difficul- 
ties of  a  constant  breaking  and  opening  of  streets  for  all  sorts  of 
purposes  have  been  experienced.  It  is  recommended  that  a  price 
be  fixed  by  ordinance  for  each  such  opening,  and  that  before  the 
permit  shall  issue  a  deposit  be  made  of  funds  sufficient  to  cover  the 
price  of  restoring  and  keeping  the  street  surface  in  repair.  This 
price  to  be  fixed  by  a  contract  to  be  made  with  some  responsible 
man  who  shall  do  all  such  work. 

SHOULD  PAVING  CONTRACTS  BE  GUARANTEED.* 

An  ordinance  was  lately  introduced  in  the  Common  Council  of 
Cleveland  providing  that,  in  all  future  contracts  for  paving  in  that 
city,  the  contractor  should  guarantee  the  durability  of  his  pavement 
for  a  period  of  ten  years,  and  agree  to  keep  it  in  good  condition 
during  that  period  and  leave  it  in  good  condition  at  its  close,  the 
guarantee  to  be  secured  by  the  retention  of  ten  per  cent,  of  the  con- 
tract pi  ice,  which  was  to  be  invested  in  interest-bearing  securities 
mutually  satisfactory  to  the  city  and  contractor. 

This  ordinance  was  referred  to  a  special  committee  of  the  Board 
of  Improvements,  who  made  a  report  signed  by  City  Civil  Engineer 
Rice,  Mayor  Babcock  and  Alderman  Randell.  This  report,  with 
comments  in  parallel-column  form,  as  given  below,  has  been  some- 
what widely  circulated. 


REPORT. 

To  the  Honorable  Board  of  Im- 
provements : 

GENTLEMEN  :  The  attached  or- 
dinance, No.  544,  on  careful  in- 
vestigation, does  not  bear  out  -the 
fair  promises  on  its  face.  I  believe 
the  same  to  be  wrong  in  principle, 
for  the  following  reasons  :  To  at- 
tempt to  group  all  kinds  of  pave- 
ments and  all  conditions  under  one 
rule  is  absurd. 


COMMENTS. 

The  city  of  Philadelphia,  June 
13,  1884,  adopted  an  ordinance  con- 
taining the  following  section  : 

"SECTION  i.  The  Select  and 
Common  Councils  of  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  do  ordain,  1  hat,  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  profes- 
sional advice  on  the  subject  of  pav- 
ing the  streets  of  Philadelphia,  the 
Mayor  is  authorized  to  obtain  from 
three  engineers,  distinguished  for 
tkeir  knowledge  and  experience 
of  pavements,  a  written  opinion 
and  report  concerning  the  subject 
of  pavements  in  Philadelphia." 


*  Ed.  xviii,  256. 


248 


NOTES. 


REPORT. 


A  distinction  should  be  made 
between  pavements  laid  under  the 
city's  specifications  and  those  laid 
under  the  specifications  of  a  con- 
tractor. A  distinction  should  be 
made  between  pavements  com- 
posed of  materials  purchasable  in 
open  market  and  open  to  compe- 
tition, and  pavements  where  the 
purchase  of  material  and  compe- 
tition is  barred  by  patents  and 
other  restrictions. 


It  is  probable  that  a  guarantee 
of  any  number  of  years  would  in- 
sure better  work  for  which  the 
property  would  pay,  not  the  con- 
tractor. 


COMMENTS. 

One  of  the  recommendations 
contained  in  the  report  made  by 
the  Committee  of  Experts  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

' '  All  contracts  for  pavements 
(excluding  macadam)  should  con- 
tain a  clause  by  which  the  con- 
tractor guarantees  to  keep  the 
pavement  in  good  repair  for  a 
period  of  not  less  than  five  years 
from  the  date  of  its  acceptance  by 
the  city,  and  to  insure  a  compli- 
ance with  this  guarantee,  the  city 
should  retain  ten  per  centum  of  its 
cost  until  the  expiration  of  the  five 
years  term." 

Report  signed  by  Q.  A.  Gill- 
more,  F.  V.  Greene,  and  Edward 
P.  North. 

These  gentlemen  represented 
the  highest  order  of  engineering 
talent  the  United  States  has  yet 
possessed,  and  not  one  of  them 
was  ever  under  suspicion  of  abuse 
of  his  professional  integrity.  Ev- 
ery one  of  them  had  had  long  and 
varied  experience  with  street  pav- 
ing and  was  recognized  as  an 
authority  in  the  business. 

As  no  pavement  is  laid  without 
the  city's  approval  of  the  specifi- 
cations, all  such  specifications  are 
from  necessity  the  city's,  as  all  are 
also  the  contractor's  when  he  ac- 
cepts them.  What  distinction  in 
guaranteeing  shall  be  made  on  ac- 
count of  material  that  may  or  may 
not  be  purchasable  in  unrestricted 
or  open  market  ?  What  has  that 
to  do  with  the  fact  that  dishonest 
or  incompetent  contractors  may, 
regardless  of  material,  do  bad 
work — bad  work  that  a  guarantee 
will  prevent  ? 

This  is  self-evident,  and  unless 
the  paragraph  carries  by  implica- 
tion the  opinion  that  property 
owners  ought  not  to  pay  for  what 
they  get,  calls  for  no  comment. 
In  such  case  it  is  too  absurd  for 
notice. 


NOTES. 


249 


REPORT. 

The  fact  that  block  stone  pave- 
ments are  good  for  ten  years  is 
patent  to  every  observer,  and  to 
pay  an  additional  amount  to  re- 
demonstrate  this  fact  is  not  econ 
omy  or  wisdom  on  the  part  of  the 
city. 

Such  faults  as  this  class  of  pave- 
ments possess  are  due  to  founda- 
tion, not  the  wear  of  the  material. 

The  same  necessity  for  a  foun- 
dation does  not  exist  where  the 
soil  is  sand  or  gravel,  but  if  this 
fault  is  considered  vital,  and  the 
time  has,  in  your  opinion,  arrived 
for  adding  costly  foundations,  it  is 
a  simple  matter. 

In  the  case  of  sheet  pavements 
a  foundation  is  a  necessity,  no 
matter  what  the  character  of  the 
soil  is. 

A  contractor  may  do  a  business 
of  $100,000  on  a  capital  of  $20,000, 
and  if  you  retain  10  per  cent,  on 
this  amount  of  work  done,  you  re- 
tain an  amount  equal  to  half  his 
capital,  or  all  or  more  of  his  profits 
for  the  year.  This  would  aggre- 
gate or  retire  such  a  sum  in  ten 
years  of  active  contract  work,  as 
to,  in  all  probability,  swamp  the 
strongest  paving  firm  that  has  ever 
attempted  to  lay  pavements  in  this 
city.  All  contractors  with  moder- 
ate means  would  be  driven  from 
the  field  inside  of  two  years,  and 
the  work  forced  into  combinations 
and  trusts.  This  would  do  away 
with  the  small  competition  we  now 
have  and  run  up  prices.  In  the 
case  of  contractors  who  have  done 
work  for  this  city,  this  10  per  cent, 
would  amount  in  one  instance  to 
the  abstraction  of  $20,000  in  four 
years,  and  in  another  to  the  enor- 
mous sum  of  $100,000  in  ten  years. 

The  city  authorities  have  the 
power  and  the  remedy  of  this 
matter  in  their  own  hands  without 
the  passage  of  an  ordinance  of 
such  a  dubious  character.  Guar- 


COMMENTS. 

As  no  block  stone  pavement  laid 
in  the  city  of  Cleveland  has  lasted 
ten  years  in  good  condition,  and  as 
most  of  it  is  in  wretchedly  bad 
condition  in  less  than  five  years,  it 
must  be  patent  that  the  claim 
made  cannot  be  sustained.  And 
if  a  guarantee  will  be  the  means  of 
securing  good  foundations  or  any- 
thing else,  it  is  entitled  to  a  trial. 

This  reference  to  the  opinion  of 
the  Board  is  worthy  of  careful  at- 
tention, and  the  conclusion  they 
reach  will,  it  is  hoped,  be  an- 
nounced before  any  more  pave- 
ment is  laid  'without  a  foundation. 

True ;  and  contractors  laying 
asphalt  sheet  pavement  always  ad- 
vocate the  best  practice  known  to 
paving  construction. 

This  consideration  for  the  wel- 
fare of  contractors  is  charitable, 
but  is  not  business.  An  inspection 
of  the  pavements  of  the  city  does 
not  establish  a  special  claim  to 
consideration ;  particularly  so  if 
the  result  is  to  be  still  further  de- 
pletion of  the  taxpayers,  from 
whom  the  money  is  to  be  taken 
for  the  repair  of  pavements.  But 
why  not  take  good  bonds  to  pro- 
tect a  guarantee,  and  so  wipe  out 
the  hardship  so  mournfully  set 
forth? 


If  the  power  and  remedies  exist, 
as  stated,  there  must  have  been 
official  delinquency  on  the  part  of 
particular  officials,  whose  duties 
have  been  seriously  neglected,  and 


250 


NOTES. 


REPORT. 

antees  may  be  exacted  for  all  new 
and  untried  material  whenever  or 
wherever  necessary.  Foundations 
may  be  put  in  whenever  or  wher- 
ever necessary,  and  proper  steps 
to  encourage  competition  may  be 
taken. 

Respectfully  submitted,  Walter 
P.  Rice,  City  Civil  Engineer;  B.  D. 
Babcock,  Mayor;  Frank  Randell, 
Alderman. 


COMMENTS. 

the  question  of  the  hour  is,  what 
are  they  doing  about  it  ?  The 
many  miles  of  unevenly  settled 
pavements,  both  old  and  new, 
found  in  the  streets  of  Cleveland, 
are  positive  evidence  of  the  need 
of  better  foundations  for  block 
stone  pavements,  and  the  legiti- 
mate question  is,  are  better  foun- 
dations to  be  provided  for  in  the 
specifications  for  such  work  ? 


The  practice  of  requiring  the  contractor  to  guarantee  the  per- 
formance of  his  work  is  not  uncommon,  nearly  all  the  sheet  asphalt 
pavements  laid  in  this  country  have  been  laid  with  a  guarantee  for 
their  repair  through  a  specified  term  of  years,  but  it  does  not  seem 
fair  to  a  contractor  to  require  him  to  make  all  repairs  without  com- 
pensation. It  would  be  disastrous,  for  instance,  in  New  York  City 
where  so  little  control  is  exercised  over  those  who  are  daily 
permitted  for  one  cause  or  another  to  open  the  streets.  The  Euro- 
pean practice  often  is  to  specify  that  the  contractor  shall  keep  the 
pavement  in  good  repair  for  two  or  three  years,  free  from  all  charges 
to  the  Municipality,  and  for  fifteen  years  after  that,  at  a  fixed  annual 
price  per  square  yard,  giving  to  the  Municipality  at  the  end  of  seven- 
teen or  eighteen  years  from  its  acceptance  a  pavement  as  good  in 
all  respects  as  when  originally  laid.  Payment  per  square  yard  for 
maintenance  is  not  estimated  on  the  surface  actually  repaired,  but 
on  the  total  area  paved  by  the  contractor,  and  the  precise  amount 
of  subsidence  or  wear  permitted  before  repairs  are  required  is  care- 
fully specified.  Some  instances  are  given  in  E.  P.  North's  paper  on 
the  "Construction  and  Maintenance  of  Roads"  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  for  1879. 

Any  such  provision  in  this  country  should  be  modified  in  favor 
of  the  contractor,  by  making  due  allowance  for  the  frequent  tearing 
up  of  the  streets  by  plumbers  and  pipe-line  men,  a  practice  which  is 
not  so  frequent  in  European  cities  as  it  unfortunately  is  here. 


PART    II. 

ROADS : 
CONSTRUCTION  ;  MAINTENANCE  ;  LEGISLATION. 


THE    REPAIR  AND  MAINTENANCE    OF    ROADS.* 

From  the  L.  A.  W.  Bulletin  we  abstract  from  an  article, 
especially  written  for  the  National  Cyclists'  Union,  some  very  per- 
tinent remarks  on  the  subject  of  road  repairing  and  maintenance. 
The  roads  in  many  parts  of  our  country  are  a  disgrace  to  civiliza- 
tion, and  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  an  immense  saving  in  money 
wculd  result  if  their  management  would  be  left  to  the  intelligent 
direction  of  educated  engineers,  instead  of  the  ignorant  roadmasters 
who  consider  a  road  made  when  it  is  heaped  up  in  the  middle  : 

Although  railways  may  have  altered  the  character  of  the  traffic  on  the 
common  roads,  the  actual  number  of  vehicles  and  amount  of  produce  con- 
veyed over  them  is  no  doubt  greater  than  it  ever  was.  The  railways,  by 
facilitating  traffic,  have  greatly  increased  the  resources  of  the  country,  but 
every  ton  of  goods  conveyed  by  railway  must  first  pass  over  the  roads  lead- 
ing to  or  from  the  place  of  production. 

Economy  in  Good  Roads. — For  economical  and  convenient  traction, 
roads  should  be  maintained  in  thoroughly  good  order.  This,  however,  is 
too  seldom  the  case,  and  many  roads  are  kept  in  such  a  condition  as  to  be 
a  disgrace  to  the  country. 

This  is  the  more  inexcusable  as  it  is  a  fact  well  known  to  all  who  have 
had  experience  in  the  matter,  that  roads  well  maintained  and  kept  in  good 
order  cost  less  than  bad  roads.  It  is  plain  that  if  by  keeping  roads  in  good 
order,  four  horses  are  enabled  to  do  the  work  of  five,  or  three  or  four  (by 
no  means  an  unreasonable  supposition),  the  economy  of  horse  labor  and 
wear  and  tear  of  vehicles  and  harness  must  be  considerable,  but  economy 
in  the  actual  cost  of  maintenance  generally  follows  as  well.  Experience 
proves  that  a  road  with  sufficient  strength,  good  surface,  and  thorough 
drainage  can  be  kept  in  first-rate  order  with  a  much  smaller  quantity  of 
materials  than  an  inferior,  ill-kept  road  requires,  and,  though  a  greater 
amount  of  manual  labor  may  be  necessary,  a  good  road  on  the  whole  is 
generally  more  cheaply  maintained  than  a  bad  one,  especially  when  there 
is  any  considerable  amount  of  traffic.  The  indirect  saving  in  the  cost  of 
traction  and  wear  and  tear  of  vehicles  and  horses,  which  would  result  from 
better  roads,  would  probably  far  exceed  any  direct  saving  in  expenditure 
on  the  roads. 

*xvi,  97. By  W.  H.  Wheeler,  M.  Inst,  C.  E. 


252  ROADS. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  saving  in  England  by  improving  the  roads  (and 
they  are  now  greatly  better  than  in  this  country)  would  be  $100,000,000  per 
year.  This  is  on  the  supposition  that  three  horses  would  be  able  to  do  the 
work  of  four.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  on  many  of  the  roads  in 
this  country  one  horse  would  do  the  work  of  two  were  the  roads  put  in 
good  condition.  The  author,  referring  to  English  experience,  quotes  a  case 
where  the  tolls  on  a  turnpike  were  insufficient  to  pay  expenses,  but  by  a 
reorganization  of  the  labor  system  and  the  selection  of  good  materials,  not 
only  was  the  roadbed  so  much  improved  that  the  loads  hauled  were 
doubled,  but  the  income  paid  off  the  debt. 

Supervision. — To  accomplish  this,  however,  requires  the  supervision 
of  a  skilled  engineer,  and  this  is  the  rock  on  which  authorities  here  are  sure 
to  come  to  grief,  since  every  roadmaster  is  his  own  engineer. 

There  is  no  point  upon  which  a  more  decided  coincidence  of  opinion 
exists  among  all  those  who  profess  what  may  now  be  called  the  science  of 
roadmaking,  than  that  the  first  effectual  step  toward  general  improvement 
must  be  the  employment  of  persons  of  superior  ability  and  experience  as 
superintending  surveyors.  The  duties  of  surveyor  demand  suitable  educa- 
tion and  talents,  and  some  skill  in  the  science  of  an  engineer  should  also  be 
regarded  as  a  valuable  qualification,  and  these  qualifications  must  be  fairly 
remunerated. 

In  the  case  of  roads  in  town  and  suburban  districts,  these  are  generally 
under  the  control  of  a  board  having  efficient  officers,  and  if  the  roads  are 
not  properly  kept  it  cannot  be  from  want  of  proper  machinery  to  effect  this 
object.  In  many  of  these  cases,  however,  the  fact  does  not  seem  to  be  fully 
realized  that  efficiency  in  management  means  economy  in  cost,  and  that 
efficiency  and  cost  are  invariably  in  reverse  ratio. 

Vehicles. — The  growing  practice  of  using  narrow  wheels  for  vehicles 
carrying  heavy  loads  is  very  destructive  to  the  roads,  the  width  of  surface 
covered  by  the  narrow  wheel  not  being  sufficient  to  bear  the  heavy  weight 
imposed  on  it.  It  has  been  proved  by  repeated  and  careful  experiments 
that  wheels  with  two-and-a-half-inch  tires  cause  double  the  wear  on  a  road 
than  those  do  which  have  four-and-a-half-inch  tires,  On  good  roads  there 
is  no  great  advantage  in  a  greater  width  than  four  and  a  half  inches.  Tel- 
ford's  rule  was  one  inch  of  tire  for  every  500  weight  on  the  wheel.  By  this 
a  cart  weighing  with  its  load  two  tons  would  require  four-inch  tires.  The 
following  proportions  have  been  advised  by  competent  authority  : 


WIDTH  < 

3F  TIRE. 

Without 
springs. 

With 
springs. 

•y  to  f  ton  on  each  wheel                    .       

Inches. 

3 

Inches, 
i 

\  to  i  ton  on  each  wheel.        

4 

3 

i  to  ii  tons  on  each  wheel                  .           .... 

6 

4 

It  has  even  been  recommended  by  some  that  all  carts  weighing  over 
600  pounds  should  be  restricted  to  wheels  of  not  less  width  than  four  inches, 
and  the  vehicles  drawn  by  more  than  three  horses  should  have  wheels  of 
not  less  than  six  inches. 


ROADS.  253 

Wheels  of  a  large  diameter  also  do  less  harm  to  a  road  than  small  ones. 
Stones  will  be  pushed  and  moved  out  of  their  places  by  the  small  fore 
wheels  of  a  wagon,  whereas  the  larger  hind  wheels  will  pass  over  without 
displacing  them.  Large  and  broad  wheels  not  only  do  less  harm  to  the 
roads,  but  cause  less  draught  for  the  horses. 

Requirements  of  a  Good  Road. — A  perfectly  good  road  should  have  a 
firm  and  unyielding  foundation,  good  drainage,  a  hard  and  compact  surface 
free  from  all  ruts,  hollows,  or  depressions.  The  surface  neither  too  flat  to 
allow  water  to  stand,  nor  too  convex  to  be  inconvenient  to  the  traffic;  free 
from  loose  stones,  the  fresh  material  being  put  on  whenever  practicable  in 
winter  in  such  a  manner  as  to  inconvenience  the  traffic  as  little  as  possible; 
all  mud  scraped  off  the  surface  as  soon  as  it  arises  and  not  left  in  heaps  on 
the  road,  the  longitudinal  inclination  not  to  be  greater  than  such  that  a 
horse  may  trot  down  hill  with  a  vehicle  behind  it  without  danger. 

Foundation. — With  the  exception  of  the  first  and  last,  all  these  condi- 
tions may  be  obtained  in  our  existing  highways.  The  great  bulk  of  the 
roads  have  been  made  without  any  sufficient  foundation,  and  the  coating 
of  surface  material  is  so  thin  that  unless  constant  and  vigilant  attention  is 
given,  the  wheels  rapidly  cut  through  the  crust  in  wet  or  frosty  weather. 
The  rain  thus  gains  a  way  into  the  under  foundation,  and  large  quantities 
of  new  ^material  are  required  to  be  put  on  before  the  road  can  be  restored. 
It  is  impossible  now  to  provide  these  roads  with  good  foundations,  but  it  is 
practicable,  notwithstanding,  to  convert  them  by  proper  management  into 
very  good  roads. 

Gradients. — In  hilly  districts  it  is  not  possible  to  reduce  the  inclination 
to  such  a  gradient  that  a  horse  can  safely  trot  down,  but  there  exist  numer- 
ous cases  where,  at  a  comparatively  small  expenditure,  by  taking  off  the 
crest  of  a  hill  and  filling  the  hollow,  dangerous  portions  of  roads  might  be 
improved  and  convenience  of  the  traffic  greatly  increased.  A  gradient 
having  a  rise  of  one  foot  in  every  40  may  be  considered  perfectly  safe  for  a 
horse  to  trot  down  with  a  light  vehicle.  An  inclination  of  one  in  20  is  too 
steep  for  convenient  traction,  and  should,  if  possible,  never  be  exceeded. 
The  latter  gradient  is  too  steep,  and  is  the  cause  of  great  inconvenience 
especially  in  level  districts,  it  being  frequently  impossible  for  a  horse  to 
take  the  load  that  he  can  well  draw  along  the  level  road  up  such  -an  inclin- 
ation. 

Ease  of  Traction. — The  power  required  to  move  vehicles  along  a  road 
varies  with  its  conditions.  The  harder  and  more  level  the  surface  the  less 
tractive  power  is  required.  On  a  good  paved  road  a  force  of  33  pounds  is 
required  to  move  a  ton;  on  a  well-constructed  road  maintained  in  good 
order,  a  force  equal  to  46  pounds,  and  on  an  ordinary  country  road,  fairly 
well  kept,  65  pounds  is  required;  whereas,  on  a  badly  kept  road,  with  loose 
surface,  the  force  mounts  up  to  double  and  even  treble  the  last  figure. 

The  result  of  experiments  made  on  a  macadam  road  by  the  author 
with  a  dynamometer  attached  to  a  wagon  having  3-inch  wheels,  the  total 
load  being  two  tons,  showed  that  on  a  road  repaired  with  hard  gravel  picked 
off  the  land  and  broken  by  hand,  a  tractive  force  varying  from  224 
pounds  up  to  280  pounds  was  required  to  move  the  wagon.  The  same  road, 
repaired  with  granite  broken  into  cubes  to  pass  through  a  two  and  a  half 
inch  ring,  and  on  which  more  labor  and  attention  had  been  bestowed, 
required  exactly  half  the  force,  or  112  pounds. 


254  ROADS. 

Construction. — Although  it  is  seldom  that  new  roads  forming  main 
lines  of  communication  have  now  to  be  made,  yet  it  is  desirable  briefly  to 
state  the  method  of  construction  adopted  by  the  best  roadmakers. 

The  plan  adopted  by  Telford,  the  greatest  road  engineer  probably  since 
the  time  of  the  Romans,  was  first  to  level  and  drain  the  site  of  the  proposed 
road,  then  to  lay  upon  it  a  solid  pavement  of  large  stones,  and  on  this  a 
layer  of  stones  carefully  broken  so  as  to  pass  through  a  two  and  a  half  inch 
gauge,  and  no  stone  weighing  more  than  six  ounces,  and  over  all  gravel  or 
other  fine  material  in  sufficient  quantity  to  hide  the  stones.  Great  attention 
was  paid  to  the  surface  until  it  became  thoroughly  solidified,  and  then  it 
would  stand  for  several  years  with  a  very  little  repair,  one  of  the  roads  con- 
structed in  this  way  requiring  nothing  to  be  done,  beyond  cleaning  the  dirt 
off,  for  six  years  after  its  construction. 

Macadam,  who  earned  his  reputation  more  as  a  converter  of  bad  roads 
into  good  ones  than  as  a  constructor  of  new  roads,  differed  from  Telford  in 
his  system.  Instead  of  the  first  coat  of  rough  pitching,  he  substituted  a 
layer  of  hard  stones  broken  into  angular  fragments.  This  was  watched, 
and  as  ruts  or  inequalities  formed  they  were  raked  and  leveled  and  fresh 
material  added  until  a  hard  and  level  surface  was  obtained.  The  material 
used  for  coating  was  the  hardest  he  could  obtain,  preference  being  given 
to  granite,  greenstone,  or  basalt. 

The  great  art  in  roadmaking  is  so  to  construct  the  surface  that  no  wet 
can  penetrate  from  the  top,  and  so  that  the  dirt  cannot  work  up  from  the 
bottom.  The  foundation  must  be  of  such  materials  as  to  form  a  uniform 
and  unyielding  body. 

Burnt  clay  is  dry  and  porous,  and,  if  well  burnt  and  thickly  covered, 
makes  a  good  material,  but  unless  these  conditions  are  complied  with,  it  is 
liable  to  rapid  deterioration. 

With  the  exception  of  some  of  the  principal  thoroughfares,  few  roads 
in  this  country  have  been  formed  with  a  proper  foundation.  Generally  a 
quantity  of  such  material  as  could  most  easily  be  procured  in  the  neigh 
borhood  has  been  shot  down,  leveled,  and  then  left  to  become  consolidated" 
by  the  traffic.  This  has  gradually  been  worn  away  by  the  action  of  the 
weather  and  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  traffic,  till  only  a  very  slight  coat- 
ing of  hard  material  remains.  In  wet  and  frosty  weather  the  wheels  rapidly 
cut  through  this  thin  skin,  allowing  the  water  to  get  below  the  surface 
level  and  the  mud  to  work  up  from  below. 

A  visible  track  once  made  in  a  road,  all  the  vehicles  will  follow  in  the 
same  course,  each  cutting  into  the  road  and  forming  two  deep  ruts.  The 
hardest-paved  road  will  wear  away  if  the  traffic  be  all  kept  in  one  track. 
If  drivers  would  only  vary  their  track  a  few  inches,  one  set  of  wheels  would 
counteract  the  effect  of  the  others,  and  the  road  remain  uninjured.  The 
advantages  of  this  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  wherever  there  is  a  turn  in  the 
road,  however  deep  the  rut;  may  be  on  the  straight  part,  they  disappear  at 
the  turn,  because  at  the  turning  the  horses  coming  from  different  directions 
naturally  vary  their  course  round  the  corners,  and  one  wheel  obliterates  the 
track  of  the  other.  The  experience  of  all  roadmen  can  testify  to  the  fact 
that  at  these  points  less  material  and  labor  is  required  than  at  any  other 
part  of  the  road. 

One  material  point  in  the  maintenance  of  roads  is  the  transverse  form. 
Roads  that  are  too  flat  hold  the  water  and  keep  the  surface  wet.  A  road 
that  is  too  round  is  not  only  inconvenient  for  the  traffic,  but  wears  badly. 


ROADS.  255 

On  a  road  that  is  too  round  there  is  a  necessity  for  the  traffic  all  to  follow 
in  the  same  track  along  the  centre  of  the  road,  that  being  the  only  part 
where  a  vehicle  can  run  upright.  The  continual  tread  of  the  horses'  feet 
in  one  track  in  the  centre  soon  forms  a  depression  which  holds  the  water, 
so  that  such  a  road  is  not  so  dry,  and  wears  more  unevenly  than  one  of  a 
flatter  section  in  which  the  traffic  is  more  evenly  distributed  over  the  whole 
width.  If  the  surface  be  allowed  to  wear  into  tracks  and  ruts,  the  round- 
ness will  not  clear  it  of  water.  The  best  form  for  the  transverse  section  of 
a  road  is  that  of  an  ellipse,  the  surface  having  a  very  small  inclination  in 
the  middle  and  a  steeper  fall  at  the  sides  toward  the  gutter. 

Maintenance. — In  dealing  with  the  ordinary  repair  of  roads  they  must 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  the  first  being  those  which  have  to  endure  the 
constant  and  heavy  traffic  of  towns  and  their  immediate  neighborhood,  and 
the  second,  those  subject  only  to  provincial  and  agricultural  traffic. 

The  attrition  caused  by  the  wheels  of  the  thousands  of  vehicles  which 
pass  over  town  roads,  many  of  them  carrying  weights  of  several  tons,  pro- 
duces an  immense  amount  of  wear  and  tear  and  necessitates  frequent  and 
-expensive  repairs.  The  great  advantage  and  economy  of  paved  surfaces 
in  towns  need  not  be  dealt  with  here,  Where  there  is  much  traffic  it  is 
impossible  to  prevent  macadamized  roads  from  wearing  into  dust  in  summer 
and  mud  in  winter.  The  thickness  of  the  material,  thus  converted  from  the 
hardest  known  rocks  into  mud  and  dust, has  been  proved  to  amount  to  as  much 
in  one  season  as  4  inches  over  the  part  of  the  surface  exposed  to  the  most 
wear  and  2  inches  over  the  whole  surface.  The  difficulty  of  replacing  this 
material  and  combining  effectiveness  of  repair,  with  consideration  for  the 
users  of  the  road,  has  been  a  matter  of  much  discussion.  The  practice  of 
laying  a  thick  coating  of  stone  over  the  road  and  leaving  the  traffic  to  grind 
it  down  to  a  level  surface  is  barbarous  to  the  horses,  destructive  to  all  light 
vehicles,  and  wasteful  of  the  stone.  To  enable  broken  stone  to  bond 
together  and  form  an  even  surface,  some  substance  must  be  used  that  will 
allow  each  stone  to  keep  undisturbed  with  its  neighbor.  Unless  some 
filling-in  material  is  supplied,  from  one-third  to  one-fifth  of  the  whole  mass 
must  be  ground  down  to  fill  up  the  interstices  before  the  stone  can  be 
bedded.  In  the  process  the  angles  are  rubbed  off  the  stones  until  their 
surface  becomes  rounded,  rendering  them  liable  to  be  constantly  loosened. 
On  the  other  handfc  all  fine  material  added,  especially  if  it  be  not  of  good 
character,  is  liable  to  work  into,  dust  in  summer  and  mud  in  winter.  If  the 
filling  material  be  of  an  adhesive  character  in  certain  states  of  the  weather 
it  clogs  the  wheels  and  tends  to  the  destruction  of  the  road.  After  a  sharp 
frost,  when  the  thaw  begins,  the  effect  may  frequently  be  seen  of  the 
material  of  which  the  surface  is  composed  combining  with  the  moisture 
and  horse-dung  to  work  into  a  sticky  paste,  which  adheres  to  the  wheels  of 
vehicles  and  draws  out  the  stones  from  the  roads.  Some  road  surveyors 
have  adopted  the  plan  of  mixing  the  filling-in  material  with  tar  before  it  is 
placed  on  the  coating  of  stone.  A  road  treated  in  this  way  if  well  rolled 
before  being  used  has  a  surface  almost  impervious  to  wet,  and,  owing  to  its 
elasticity,  of  a  very  enduring  character.  Granite  chips  or  the  screenings 
of  the  broken  slag  are  an  excellent  material  for  mixing  with  tar.  The  heap 
of  material  after  mixing  should  be  allowed  to  remain  for  several  days 
before  use,  otherwise  it  will  be  too  sticky. 

Constant  watering  in  dry  weather  and  cleansing  of  the  surface  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  maintain  the  surface  of  a  macadam  road  in  good 


256  ROADS. 

condition.  The  method  of  repair  observed  by  the  best  road  surveyors  is  to 
have  the  roads  repaired  in  winter.  The  material  used  is  the  hardest  and 
toughest  to  be  procured,  broken  to  an  even  and  regular  size,  the  fragments 
not  larger  than  will  pass  through  a  two  and  a  half  inch  ring.  The  surface 
is  covered  with  sharp  material  of  the  same  character  as  the  stone  ground 
in  a  stone-breaker  to  a  size  known  as  chips.  After  the  stone  and  filling  in 
has  been  evenly  spread,  the  surface  is  well  watered  and  rolled  with  a  steam 
roller  weighing  not  more  than  ten  tons.  A  greater  weight  than  this  is  apt 
to  damage  the  gas  and  water  pipes.  After  continual  rolling  the  surface 
becomes  thoroughly  consolidated  and  even  and  fit  for  the  traffic. 

Steam  rolling  is  in  every  way  better  and  more  economical  than  horse 
rolling,  and  that  the  advantages  arising  from  the  use  of  these  rollers  are 
economy,  facility  of  perfect  construction,  comfort  to  persons  and  horses . 
using  the  roads,  improved  surface,  diminishing  the  wear  and  tear  of  vehi- 
cles, saving  of  material  amounting  to  as  much  as  25  to  50  per  cent. 

In  Paris  the  method  of  repairing  macadamized  roads  consists  in  hav- 
ing the  stones  broken  to  such  a  size  that  no  stone  weighs  more  than  five 
ounces.  The  interstices  are  filled  with  sharp  sand.  After  the  road  is  com- 
pleted it  is  maintained  in  order  by  constant  watering  and  sweeping  with  a 
machine — the  sweeping  following  the  watering,  and  the  surface  being  made 
thoroughly  wet,  so  that  the  machine  will  work  easily.  This  is  done  early 
in  the  morning,  before  the  traffic  is  about.  In  warm,  dry  weather  the  road 
is  frequently  watered  during  the  day  with  hose  from  stand-pipes,  the  sur- 
face being  only  moistened  :  and  not  made  thoroughly  wet.  In  many  towns 
in  this  country  water  is  poured  on  to  the  surface  of  a  road  covered  with 
dirt,  so  that  a  sea  of  mud  has  to  be  waded  through  by  persons  having  to 
cross  the  road,  and  their  boots  become  covered  with  mud  on  the  brightest 
summer  day.  The  mud  soon  after  dries,  and  is  carried  in  clouds  of  dust 
over  the  goods  in  the  shops  and  the  clothes  of  the  passengers. 

The  repair  of  country  roads  is  a  much  easier  task  than  that  of  town 
roads.  The  amount  of  traffic  is  so  small  that  with  ordinary  skill,  care  and 
attention  there  ought  to  be  no  difficulty  in  keeping  the  highways  of  this 
country  in  excellent  order  at  a  small  cost. 

The  main  points  to  be  observed  are  :  The  constant  care  on  the  part  of 
the  roadman  never  to  let  his  road  get  out  of  order  ;  in  no  case  does  the  old 
proverb,  "  A  stitch  in  time  saves  nine,"  apply  more  forcibly  than  to  road 
repair  ;  the  use  of  good  materials  ;  proper  attention  to  surface  drainage  ; 
cleaning  the  mud  off  in  wet  weather  ;  removing  all  loose  stones  in  dry 
weather. 

The  roadman  should  never  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  loose  stones  are 
annoying  to  every  user  of  the  road,  and  always  more  or  less  dangerous. 

One  very  essential  matter  that  requires  the  attention  of  the  roadman 
is  the  scraping  and  cleaning  the  mud  arising  from  the  wearing  away  of  the 
materials  and  the  droppings  of  the  horses.  It  is  impossible  for  the  wet  to 
evaporate  quickly  when  the  surface  is  covered  with  mud.  In  winter  it  acts 
like  a  wet  blanket,  preventing  the  sun  and  wind  from  drying  the  road,  and 
in  summer  it  causes  clouds  of  dust.  A  road  that  has  not  been  scraped  will 
remain  wet  and  dirty  several  days  after  an  adjoining  road,  which  has  had 
the  mud  removed,  has  become  quite  dry.  No  road  surface  can  be  kept 
hard,  nor  can  ruts  be  prevented  where  mud  is  allowed  to  accumulate  and 
remain  on  the  road.  To  prevent  mud  forming  in  wet  weather  the  dirt 
should  be  removed  in  summer.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  sum- 


ROADS.  257 

raer  dust  makes  winter  mud,  and" that  it  requires  much  less  labor  to  remove 
the  dust  from  the  roads  in  summer  than  the  mud  in  winter. 

At  the  sides  of  all  roads  maintained  in  good  order  a  gutter  is  formed, 
and  these  should  be  kept  clear  and  free  from  grass  and  weeds.  They 
should  always  be  laid  out  by  a  competent  person,  and  suitable  outfalls 
made  for  the  water. 

Material. — The  chief  requisites  of  a  material  for  repairing  roads  are, 
that  it  should  not  only  be  hard,  but  tough,  and  that  its  composition  should 
be  such  as  that  it  shall  not  easily  be  affected  by  the  weather.  For  the  best 
road  the  fragments  should  be  angular  and  cubical,  so  as  to  bond  well 
together,  each  stone  should  fit  against  and  be  wedged  compactly  up  to  its 
neighbors,  as  in  a  piece  of  mosaic- work,  and  no  space  left  for  water  to  pen- 
etrate. 

The  materials  used  must,  to  a  certain  extent,  depend  upon  the  locality, 
but  it  is  far  more  economical  to  use  good  material,  although  it  has  to  be 
brought  from  a  distance,  than  inferior  local  stone  procured  at  less  cost.  No 
material  is  so  efficient  and  really  economical  as  granite  or  some  of  the  hard 
volcanic  rocks.  Even  in  first  cost  it  is  cheaper  than  gravel,  limestone  or 
slag.  There  is  less  labor  and  carting  in  putting  a  durable  and  lasting 
material  on  roads  than  one  that  is  more  perishable  and  requires  frequently 
renewing. 

Some  of  the  harder  limestones  and  sandstones  make  fairly  good  roads. 
In  damp  weather  in  summer  they  make  pleasant  roads,  but  the  former 
especially,  although  hard  and  tough,  becomes  disintegrated  rapidly  by  frost, 
and  both  wear  into  dust  in  dry  weather,  and  make  roads  dirty  in  wet  and 
dusty  in  dry  weather. 

The  softer  kinds  of  limestone  are  utterly  unfitted  for  repairing  good 
roads. 

Flint  gravel  makes  a  clean  road,  and  if  properly  attended  to  gives  a 
firm  surface,  but  not  a  very  even  one.  If  the  gravel  is  picked  off  the  land 
or  taken  from  the  bed  of  a  river  it  consists  of  stones  of  different  degrees  of 
hardness  which  wear  unevenly,  and  all  gravel  is  more  or  less  round.  Even 
if  thoroughly  broken  there  is  left  one  part  of  the  stone  which  has  a  rounded 
surface.  Sea  shingle  and  gravel,  consisting  of  rounded  pebbles,  although 
clean  and  hard,  never  consolidate.  Round  gravel  is  one  of  the  worst  and 
most  dangerous  materials  that  can  be  used  for  roads.  If  the  gravel  be- 
comes consolidated  in  winter  it  is  certain  to  work  loose  in  the  following 
summer.  The  constant  tendency  of  all  stones  having  rounded  surfaces  is 
to  roll  round  one  another  when  weight  is  brought  on  them,  and  so  work 
loose. 

The  materials  to  be  avoided  are  those  that  are  quickly  converted  into 
mud  or  dust  and  that  work  loose,  and  preference  should  be  given  to  those 
that,  avoiding  these  evils,  make  as  even  a  surface  as  practicable  and  seldom 
require  repair.  The  question  of  first  cost,  within  reasonable  limits,  need 
not  be  considered,  as  the  better  the  material,  the  less  of  it  is  required,  and 
the  less  the  labor  and  carting. 

With  regard  to  the  size  to  which  the  fragments  should  be  broken, 
opinions  vary  considerably.  The  old  rule  was  that  no  stone  that  would  not 
pass  through  a  two  and  a  half  inch  gauge  should  be  used  for  the  surface 
repairs.  More  recently  smaller  sizes  have  been  advocated,  and  the  element 
of  weight  as  a  standard  advocated.  The  following  standard  has  been 
recommended : 


258  ROADS. 


Maximum 
Weight. 

Minimum 
Weight. 

Granite  and  similar  rocks  

3>£  oz. 

y2  oz. 

Flint  and  similar  stones. 

1        " 

3/     " 

Limestone  and  similar  stones  

6 

i  ** 

One-half  of  the  total  quantity  to  be  of  the  maximum  weight,  one-eighth 
of  the  minimum  weight,  the  remainder  to  be  composed  of  stones  varying 
between  these. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  hard  and  tough  rocks  should  be  broken  into 
smaller  fragments  than  those  that  are  softer.  For  ordinary  country  roads 
the  cleaner  and  more  even  the  size  of  the  stone  the  better,  as  there  is 
always  in  the  road  plenty  of  loose  material  for  bedding  the  new  stones. 
The  author's  experience  leads  him  to  give  as  his  opinion  that  for  the  repair 
of  a  main  road  in  rural  districts,  where  granite  or  similar  hard  material  has 
not  been  long  used,  the  size  to  pass  through  a  two  and  one-half  inch  gauge 
is  not  too  large.  If  the  fragments  are  smaller  than  this  they  are  squeezed 
into  and  lost  in  the  softer  material,  their  size  not  being  large  enough  to  give 
sufficient  bearing  surface  to  withstand  the  weight  of  the  wheels  of  heavy 
vehicles. 

After  granite  has  been  used  for  some  time  and  the  road  has  become 
fairly  coated  with  it,  so  as  to  give  a  good  resisting  surface,  a  size  to  pass 
through  a  one  and  three-quarter  inch  gauge  is  sufficiently  large  to  fill  up 
the  depressions.  If  a  smaller  size  than  this  is  used  it  will  not  stand  the 
crushing  of  the  wheels,  and  soon  becomes  dust. 

All  stone  should,  when  practicable,  be  carted  and  placed  in  heaps  at 
the  sides  of  the  road  during  the  summer,  when  the  roads  are  hard.  The 
material  is  then  ready  as  wanted,  and  there  is  less  wear  and  tear  on  the 
road  by  carting  than  if  it  be  done  in  winter.  All  stones  harden  by  ex- 
posure to  the  weather.  Stones  that  have  been  lying  during  the  summer  in 
heaps  will  wear  longer  than  those  brought  directly  from  the  quarry. 

As  far  as  practicable  materials  for  repairs  should  be  placed  on  the  roads 
in  the  early  part  of  winter  to  allow  of  its  being  thoroughly  bedded  and  in- 
corporated with  the  old  material.  As  a  matter  of  experience  it  has  been 
found  that  stone  put  on  in  the  early  spring,  although  apparently  well 
bedded  and  set,  will  work  out  again  much  sooner  than  that  put  on  in 
November  and  December.  If  it  is  necessary,  as  will  sometimes  be  the 
case,  to  place  the  stones  on  the  road  at  other  times  than  in  winter  in  order 
to  fill  up  depressions  or  to  prevent  the  formation  of  ruts,  the  surface  should 
be  loosened  with  the  pick,  the  stone  evenly  spread  and  covered  with  road- 
scrapings.  If  this  be  carefully  done  the  place  so  repaired  will  soon  be- 
come as  firm  and  as  level  as  the  rest  of  the  road.  For  repairs  of  this  kind 
only  the  smallest  kind  of  material  should  be  used.  Many  surveyors  keep  a 
supply  of  granite  chips  purposely  for  the  repair  of  hollows  and  defective 
places  in  summer  time. 

Cost  of  Repairs. — It  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  estimate  for  the  main 
roads  of  this  country,  excluding  the  strictly  urban  portions,  that  a  mile  of 
road  will  require  40  tons  of  granite  to  repair  it,  and  that  one  man  can  keep 
in  order  four  miles  of  road.  Putting  the  granite  at  $2.50  per  ton,  and  the 
wages  $1.25  a  day,  this,  with  an  allowance  for  carting,  extra  labor,  and  in- 


ROADS.  259 

cidental  expenses,  would  give  $175  a  year  as  the  cost  per  mile.  After  a 
road  has  been  thoroughly  well  coated  with  granite,  the  quantity  of  material 
required  will  decrease  considerably.  On  the  other  hand,  roads  which  have 
previously  been  repaired  with  soft  and  inferior  material  will  require  a  larger 
quantity  of  material  and  more  labor. 

THE    ADMINISTRATION    OF    COMMON    ROADS    IN    FRANCE.* 

Under  the  title  "  Local  Government  and  County  Councils  in 
France,"  M.  Waddington,  the  French  Ambassador  at  London,  has 
some  very  interesting  notes  on  the  administration  of  the  public  roads 
of  France. 

France  is  divided  into  departments,  each  department  into 
arrondissements,  each  arrondissement  into  cantons,  and  the  admin- 
istration unit  is  the  canton,  which  may  be  composed  of  several  rural 
parishes,  a  town  and  adjacent  parishes,  or  a  portion  of  a  city.  An 
arrondissement  consists  of  five  or  six  cantons,  while  the  departments, 
of  which  there  are  86  in  France,  are  generally  composed  of  35  or  40 
cantons,  but  vary  from  a  minimum  of  17  to  a  maximum  of  62,  and 
from  the  Department  of  the  Seine,  with  nearly  3,000,000  inhabitants, 
to  that  of  Belfort  with  80,000.  M.  Waddington  compares  these 
departments  to  the  English  county,  and  uses  the  word  county  in 
speaking  of  them. 

Throughout  France  the  roads  are  divided  into  five  classes  as 
follows  : 

1.  Routes  Nationales. — These  great  highways,  which  preceded  the 
railroads,  and  parallel  to  which  the  railroads  were  generally  located,  lead 
from  Paris  towards  the  frontiers,  join  large  towns  like  Lyons  and  Bordeaux, 
or  connect  the  different  fortified  posts  along  the  frontier.    At  the  beginning 
of  the  century  they  were  the  main  arteries  of  traffic  through  France  and 
the  only  roads  kept  in  good  repair.     They  are  now  much  less  used,  but  are 
kept  in  good  order  and  are  entirely  maintained  by  the  State  under  the 
direction  of  the  Ingenieurs  des  Fonts  et  Chaussees. 

2.  Routes  Departmentales. — These  connect  the  different  towns  of  a 
department  with  each  other  and  with  those  in  a  neighboring  department. 
They  are  not  quite  as  broad  as  the  "  Routes  Nationales,"  but  have  more 
traffic  than  any  other  class  of  roads  and  are  kept  in  admirable  order  entirely 
out  of  the  funds  of  the  department,  or  "county  rates,"  and  are  under  the 
direct  management  of  the  "  conseil  general"  an  elective  council  of  one 
member  from  each  canton. 

3.  Chemins  de  Grande  Communication. — These  are  almost  equivalent 
to  those  last  mentioned  and  the  two  are  now  often  completely  amalga- 
mated.    The  "Routes   Departmentales"  were,  while   maintained  out  of 
county  rates,  managed  by  State  engineers,  and  the  "  Chemins"  were  con- 
structed and  maintained  partly  by  county  fines  and  partly  by  contributions 
of  the  different  parishes,  and  managed  by  county  officials. 

4.  Chemins  d1  Inttret  Common. — These  are  country  roads  for  local 
circulation  of  less  width  and  less  solid  construction  than  the  preceding,  and 

*xviii,  135. 


260  ROADS. 

are  mainly  maintained  by  parochial  contributions,  with  the  aid  of  variable 
annual  grants  from  the  county. 

5.  Chemins  Vicinaux  Ordinatres. — Purely  parochial  roads,  connect- 
ing the  villages  or  hamlets  of  the  parish.  They  are  maintained  out  of  the 
resources  of  the  "  commune,"  and  under  the  supervision  of  the  Mayors  of 
the  commune,  but  county  officials  lend  their  assistance  or  advice  when 
requested,  and  make  plans  for  their  construction,  to  which  both  the  State 
and  county  contribute  aid  in  the  case  of  the  poorer  parishes  after  the 
commune  has  furnished  proof  that  it  is  able  to  maintain  the  road  when 
once  constructed. 

The  construction  and  maintenance  of  these  roads,  other  than  the  first 
mentioned,  is  managed  by  the  • '  conseils  generaux,"  and  though  in  some 
instances  the  service  is  managed  by  engineers  of  the  "  Fonts  et  Chaussees," 
who  in  that  case  receive  an  extra  pay  from  the  department,  they  are,  in 
general,  in  charge  of  "  agents  voyers."  An  "  agent  voyer  en  chef  "  for  the 
department,  "  agents  voyers  d'arrondissement,"  and  in  each  canton  one  or 
two  "agents  voyers  cantonaux."  The  latter  have  charge  of  the  "  canton  - 
niers,"  who  are  permanently  employed,  with  a  month's  holiday  in  harvest 
time,  and  execute  the  current  repairs  and  maintenance,  aided  by  workmen 
temporarily  employed  in  case  of  emergency. 

These  "  agents  voyers  "  now  form  a  very  considerable  body  of  highly- 
trained  men,  supporting  a  monthly  review  which  deals  with  questions  of 
interest  to  them. 

A  special  budget  for  the  roads  of  the  department  is  prepared  by  the 
"agent  voyer  en  chef  "and  laid  before  the"conseil  general  "each  year. 
It  is  divided  into  two  sections,  the  first  relating  to  maintenance  and  the 
second  dealing  with  the  reconstruction  and  improvement  of  old  roads  or  the 
construction  of  new  roads. 

The  resources  are  (i)  "  Prestations  en  naturi,"  (2)  "  Subventions  indus- 
trielles,"  and  (3)  Contributions  from  the  county  rates.  Every  taxpayer  is 
bound  to  furnish  for  the  maintenance  of  the  roads  in  his  parish  and  vicinity 
three  days'  labor,  called  "  journees  de  prestation,"  not  only  for  himself  and 
all  laborers  permanently  in  his  employment,  but  of  all  horses,  donkeys^ 
mules,  draught  oxen,  and  carts  in  his  possession,  or  commute  such  services 
at  a  rate  established  every  year  ;  or  the  prestations  may  be  converted  into 
piece  work. 

The  '*  subventions  industrielles  "  are  levied  on  the  principle  that  certain 
industries  and  manufactures,  such  as  beet-sugar  works,  distilleries,  etc., 
which  cart  heavy  loads,  cause  an  abnormal  wear  of  the  roads,  the  repairing 
of  which  cannot  be  fairly  charged  to  the  general  taxpayers.  The  amount 
of  this  subvention,  which  must  always  be  spent  on  certain  specified  roads, 
is  arranged  with  the  "  agents  voyers"  under  the  sanction  of  the  "  conseil 
general,"  or,  if  .the  parties  cannot  agree,  the  question  is  referred  to  the 
administrative  tribunal  of  the  department,  with  whom  the  final  decision 
lies. 

The  old  corve,  or  warning  peasants  out  to  work  on  the  roads  once  or 
twice  a  year,  with  the  consequence  that  the  roads  were  never  in  good  order, 
has  long  been  abolished  in  France,  and  the  system  of  continuous  mainte- 
nance substitutedjias  given  that  country  the  best  roads  of  any  except  Italy, 
where  a  system  of  continuous  maintenance  under  the  charge  of  permanent 
officers  is  also  in  use.  The  system  in  this  country  does  not  require  either 
description  or  characterization. 


ROADS.  261 


ROADS   AND    RO4.D-MAKING.* 

The  progress  of  civilization  has  everywhere  been  marked  by  good 
roads.  It  may  even  be  said  to  be  largely  due  to  them.  Ancient  Rome  was 
not  only  famous  for  its  own  roads,  but  it  carried  the  art  of  road-making  into 
all  its  conquered  provinces.  As  its  civilization  disappeared  in  the  degen- 
eracy of  the  Dark  Ages,  good  roads  ceased  to  exist,  and  they  only  reap- 
peared when  modern  nations  began  to  emerge  from  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
is  often  said  that  the  test  of  civilization  in  any  country  is  the  consumption 
of  iron  ;  but  this  is  true  only  because  railroads  are  the  chief  consumers  of 
iron,  and  they  are  but  one  form  of  roadway. 

It  is  an  undeniable  fact,  that  while  the  United  States  has  the  finest 
railway  system  in  the  world — the  most  perfectly  adapted  to  the  work  it  has 
to  do,  and  the  cheapest  in  charges  for  transportation — yet  its  roads  and  its 
city  streets  are  far  inferior  to  those  of  France,  England,  Germany,  Austria 
and  Italy.  Doubtless,  the  admirable  character  of  its  railways  is  itself  the 
cause  of  its  bad  roads  and  streets,  for  the  railways  serve  their  purpose  so 
well  that  there  is  less  apparent  need  of  good  carriage  roads.  All  the  other 
countries  above  named  had  reached  a  high  degree  of  civilization  before  the 
advent  of  railways,  about  fifty  years  ago,  whereas,  about  three-fourths  of 
the  present  area  of  the  United  States  have  been  settled  and  populated 
during  the  railway  era.  The  rapid  advance  in  wealth  and  population  of 
the  principal  countries  of  Europe  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
and  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  would  have  been  impossible  with- 
out a  corresponding  and  simultaneous  improvement  in  the  quality  of  their 
roads.  The  still  more  rapid  advance  of  America  during  this  century  has 
been  accomplished  chiefly  through  the  instrumentality  of  railways,  and 
these  have  so  thoroughly  intersected  the  country  in  every  direction,  bring- 
ing the  merchant  and  manufacturer  at  one  end,  and  the  farmer  and  miner 
at  the  other,  into  such  close  communication,  that  the  necessity  for  good 
roads  has  been  overlooked.  The  opinion  is  now  gaining  ground,  however, 
that  notwithstanding  the  excellent  and  cheap  service  of  the  railways,  there 
is  a  great  loss  in  the  unnecessary  cost  of  transportation  in  hauling  merchan- 
dise through  the  mud  to  reach  the  railroad,  and  again  over  rough  cobble- 
stones when  it  leaves  the  cars  at  its  destination.  And  independent  of  the 
commercial  aspect  of  the  question,  there  is  still  to  be  considered  the  com- 
fort and  convenience  of  those  who  use  roads  and  streets  for  pleasure  riding 
and  driving,  and  to  whom  good  road  surfaces  are  absolutely  necessary. 
During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a  constant  increase  in  the  atten- 
tion and  thought  devoted  to  the  question  of  roads  both  without  and  within 
cities,  and  the  object  of  this  article  is  to  give  briefly  such  information  as  to 
the  history  and  present  condition  of  the  art  of  road-making  as  may  be 
useful  in  this  discussion. 

Roman  Roads. — The  much-quoted  Roman  roads  were,  in  reality,  far 
inferior  to  the  best  roads  of  modern  Europe,  and  were  much  more  costly. 
Hence  they  may  be  dismissed  in  a  few  words.  They  were  stone  pavements 
with  a  very  thick  concrete  foundation  ;  or,  as  described  by  another  writer, 
they  were  "  masonry  walls  laid  on  their  sides."  The  most  famous  of  them 
was  the  Appian  Way,  constructed  about  313  B.  c.,  from  Rome  to  Capua,  and 

*xx,  145.  Abstract  of  a  paper  by  Captain  Francis  V.  Greene,  in  Har- 
per's Weekly  of  August  10,  1889. 


262  ROADS. 

subsequently  extended  to  Brundusium  (Brindisi).  The  foundation  con- 
sisted of  one  or  two  courses  of  large,  flat  stones,  laid  in  lime  mortar  ;  next 
came  a  layer  of  concrete  made  of  one  part  of  lime  and  three  of  broken  stone, 
thoroughly  mixed  and  consolidated  by  ramming  ;  on  this  was  spread  a  thin 
layer  of  mortar,  in  which  the  stones  forming  the  top  course  were  bedded. 
These  stones  were  of  basaltic  lava,  about  12  or  14  inches  in  width,  with 
smooth  upper  surfaces,  but  irregular  sides,  and  when  carefully  jointed 
together  they  formed  a  large  mosaic.  The  total  thickness  of  the  road  was 
about  three  feet,  and  its  width  varied  from  12  to  20  feet.  On  either  side 
were  raised  footways,  paved  with  stone,  and  at  frequent  intervals  were 
stepping-stones  for  mounting  horses.  It  was  also  marked  by  mile-stones, 
indicating  the  distance  from  the  forum  at  Rome. 

This  road  was  certainly  durable,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  although 
it  had  to  be  rebuilt  by  Trajan,  at  the  end  of  the  first  century  A.  D.,  parts  of 
it  are  still  in  existence,  2,200  years  after  it  was  first  constructed  ;  but  it  was 
deficient  in  the  other  qualities  of  a  good  road.  Horace  is  authority  for  the 
statement  that  it  was  "  less  fatiguing  to  people  who  travel  slowly." 

Similar  roads  were  built  in  Gaul,  in  Great  Britain,  during  the  Roman 
occupation,  and  in  Thrace  by  the  Emperor  Trajan. 

With  the  decline  of  Rome,  road-making  shared  the  fate  of  the  other 
mechanical  arts,  and  for  the  time  was  forgotten.  Good  roads  were  unknown 
again  in  Europe  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  They  were 
revived  almost  simultaneously  in  France  and  England,  and  soon  afterward 
in  the  other  chief  countries  of  Europe. 

Macadam  Roads. — Among  English-speaking  races  the  perfection  of 
modern  roads  is  generally  attributed  to  two  Englishmen,  Macadam  and 
Telford,  who  rebuilt  nearly  all  the  English  roads  in  the  early  part  of  this 
century.  Telford  was  a  distinguished  engineer,  while  Macadam  prided 
himself  on  being  nothing  but  a  road-maker.  It  is  also  generally  believed 
that  to  Macadam  is  due  the  principle  of  using  small  angular  fragments  of 
clean  stone,  which,  under  traffic,  unite  into  a  solid  mass.  The  distinctive 
feature  of  Telford's  roads  was  a  layer  of  irregular  stone,  from  six  to  eight 
inches  in  size,  carefully  placed  on  the  ground  as  a  foundation  for  the 
smaller  stones,  technically  called  the  road  metal.  The  chief  object  of  this 
foundation  was  to  afford  good  drainage,  and  prevent  the  metal  from  being 
pushed  into  the  ground  in  places  where  it  was  soft ;  but  Macadam  always 
denied  its  utility  or  necessity,  and  engineers  are  still  divided  on  this  ques- 
tion. In  regard  to  the  size  of  the  metal,  Telford  specified  that  the  stones 
should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  uniform  in  size,  the  largest  of  which  should 
pass,  in  its  longest  dimensions,  through  a  ring  two  and  one-half  inches  in 
diameter.  Macadam  preferred  the  test  of  weight,  and  insisted  that  no 
stone  should  weigh  more  than  six  ounces — which  is  the  weight  of  a  cube  of 
one  and  one-half  inches  of  hard,  compact  limestone.  His  overseers  were 
provided  with  a  small  pair  of  scales  and  a  6-ounce  weight,  in  order  to  test 
larger  stones. 

It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  the  correct  principles  of  modern  road-build- 
ing are  not  due  to  either  Macadam  or  Telford,  but  to  a  French  engineer, 
Trtsaguet,  who  anticipated  them  in  every  detail  by  about  thirty  years. 
In  a  memoir  prepared  in  1775  Tresaguet  advocated  the  small  angular  frag- 
ments of  broken  stone  of  Macadam,  and  the  rough  paving  foundation  of 
Telford.  He  built  the  high  roads  from  Paris  to  Toulouse,  and  from  Paris 
to  the  Spanish  frontier.  His  views  were  adopted  by  all  French  engineers 


ROADS.  263 

at  the  end  of  the  last  century,  and  it  was  in  accordance  with  them  that  the 
Simplon  and  other  great  roads  over  the  Alps,  as  well  as  the  principal  roads 
of  France,  were  built  under  Napoleon. 

The  excellence  of  broken  stone  roads  caused  their  universal  adoption 
in  the  first  half  of  this  century,  and  in  only  two  particulars  have  any  im- 
provements been  made  upon  them  to  the  present  day.  The  first  is  in  regard 
to  the  manner  of  breaking  the  stone.  Macadam  caused  the  stone  to  be 
broken  by  hand  on  the  side  of  the  road,  the  size  and  weight  of  the  hammer 
being  carefully  specified.  Now  they  are  much  more  quickly  and  cheaply 
broken  by  machine.  Two  classes  of  stone-crushers  have  been  devised  for 
this  purpose.  The  first,  usually  known  as  the  Blake,  consists  essentially 
of  a  strong  iron  frame,  near  one  end  of  which  is  a  movable  jaw  of  iron. 
By  means  of  a  toggle-joint  and  an  eccentric  this  jaw  is  moved  back  and 
forward  a  slight  distance  from  the  frame.  As  the  jaw  recedes,  the  opening 
increases  and  the  stone  descends  ;  as  it  approaches  the  frame  the  stone  is 
crushed.  The  second  class  is  known  as  the  Gates,  and  consists  of  a  solid 
mass  of  iron  shaped  somewhat  like  a  bell,  which  is  supported  within  an 
iron  cone.  By  means  of  an  eccentric  shaft  a  rocking  and  rotary  motion  is 
given  to  the  bell,  so  that  each  point  of  its  surface  is  successively  brought 
near  to  and  removed  from  the  surface  of  the  cone,  which  causes  the  stone 
to  descend  and  be  crushed  as  before.  These  machines  are  driven  by  steam 
engines  and  are  of  various  sizes,  capable  of  crushing  from  ten  to  two  hun- 
dred tons  per  day.  By  regulating  the  width  of  opening  between  the  jaws, 
or  within  the  cone,  the  size  to  which  the  stone  can  be  broken  is  correspond- 
ingly regulated  ;  and  by  the  use  of  revolving  screens  with  openings  of 
various  sizes,  the  stones  of  different  sizes  can  be  separated  and  delivered  in 
separate  piles  of  one-half  inch,  one  inch,  and  two  and  one-half  inches,  etc. 

The  other  improvement  is  in  the  use  of  rollers  to  consolidate  the  road 
and  give  a  smooth,  uniform  surface,  instead  of  allowing  this  work  to  be 
slowly  and  painfully  performed  by  the  vehicles  using  it.  Horse-rollers 
were  introduced  about  1834,  ^d  steam-rollers  about  1860.  There  was  for 
some  time  a  discussion  as  to  the  relative  economy  and  merits  of  the  two 
kinds  of  rollers,  but  this  has  now  been  settled  in  favor  of  the  steam-rollers. 
Of  steam-rollers  there  are  three  principal  varieties,  the  first  known  as  the 
Ballaison,  or  Gellerat,  designed  in  France,  the  second  known  as  the  Aveling 
and  Porter,  designed  in  England,  and  the  third  known  as  the  Lindelof, 
designed  in  America.  Of  these  the  Aveling  and  Porter  is  the  best  for 
Macadam  roads,  and  the  Lindelof  for  rolling  plastic  pavements. 

Construction. — Macadam  roads  are  now  everywhere  constructed  on 
substantially  the  same  principles.  The  ground  is  first  cleared  and  leveled 
of  the  prescribed  width,  and,  if  necessary,  excavated  to  the  depth  of  the 
road-covering.  All  roots  of  trees,  and  soft  and  spongy  spaces  not  affording 
a  firm  bearing,  are  removed  and  their  places  filled  with  good  gravel  or 
broken  stone.  The  surface  is  then  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller  in  order 
thoroughly  to  compact  it.  If  the  Telford  foundation  is  used,  it  is  placed  on 
the  rolled  earth  in  the  form  of  irregular  stones,  from  six  to  eight  inches  in 
size,  carefully  placed  in  position  and  forming  a  rough  pavement,  on  which 
the  Macadam  metal  is  placed.  If  the  Telford  foundation  is  not  used,  the 
metal  is  placed  directly  on  the  earth,  in  a  uniform  layer  not  exceeding  six 
inches  in  depth.  This  is  then  thoroughly  compacted  by  rolling  with  a 
heavy  roller  for  several  hours,  until  the  metal  will  not  yield  under  the 
roller.  Another  layer  of  broken  stone  of  the  same  depth  is  then  placed  on 


264 


ROADS. 


the  first  and  compacted  in  the  same  manner.  Finally  a  layer  of  from  one 
to  two  inches  in  depth  of  very  fine  broken  stone  or  gravel,  not  exceeding 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  largest  dimensions,  is  spread  on  the  surface, 
and  this  in  turn  is  compacted  by  rolling.  The  road  is  then  ready  for  use. 
The  rolling  is  greatly  facilitated  and  the  compactness  of  the  road  increased 
by  thoroughly  sprinkling  each  layer  in  connection  with  the  rolling.  In 


many  cases  the  total  thickness  of  the  Macadam  is  only  eight  inches,  instead 
of  twelve  to  thirteen  inches,  as  above  described. 

Figure  i  is  a  section  of  the  high-road  or  chaussee  from  Paris  to  Cher- 
bourg. Figure  2  is  a  section  of  Telford's  Holyhead  Road  ;  and  Figure  3  is  a 
section  of  the  Western  Boulevard  of  New  York. 


ROADS.  265 

The  cost  of  such  roads  depends  chiefly  on  two  factors,  the  price  of 
labor  and  the  price  of  broken  stone.  In  addition  to  this  is  the  cost  of  cul- 
verts and  bridges,  which  must  be  provided  for  any  road,  whatever  the  road 
surface  may  be.  The  price  of  broken  stone  varies  from  70  cents  to  $2  per 
ton,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  stone  and  the  distance  which  it  has 
to  be  hauled.  For  a  road  30  feet  wide  and  9  inches  thick,  about  5,500  tons 
are  required  for  each  mile  in  length.  The  cost  of  the  road  surface  alone 
is  about  $12,000  per  mile.  The  cost  of  embankment,  excavation,  culverts, 
drains,  stone  gutters,  etc.,  may  carry  the  cost  up  to  $70,000  per  mile. 

These  figures  might  even  be  increased  in  the  case  of  roads  traversing 
a  mountainous  district,  where  expensive  embankments,  cuttings  in  rock  and 
earth,  retaining  walls,  etc.,  would  be  necessary.  The  laying  out  of  such 
roads  calls  for  the  same  surveys  and  the  same  engineering  skill  as  in  the 
laying  out  of  railways. 

The  shape  or  cross-section  to  be  given  to  the  road  has  been  the  subject 
of  much  discussion  in  the  past.  Roads  which  are  much  rounded  in  the 
centre  shed  the  water  very  easily,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  very  un- 
comfortable for  vehicles.  There  has  also  been  much  dispute  as  to  whether 
the  cross  shape  of  the  road  should  be  a  curve,  or  should  consist  of  two 
straight  lines  meeting  at  the  centre.  It  is  now  generally  conceded  that  the 
cross  section  should  be  a  curve,  and  that  the  height  of  the  road  should  te 
about  one-sixtieth  of  its  width — i.  e.,  in  roads  30  feet  wide  the  centre  should 
be  6  inches  higher  than  the  sides,  in  roads  40  feet  wide  it  should  be  8  inches, 
and  so  on  in  proportion  to  its  width. 

The  great  cost  of  macadam  roads,  and  the  comparative  lack  of  neces- 
sity for  them  in  consequence  of  the  enormous  development  of  railways,  has 
prevented  their  construction  to  any  great  extent  in  America.  The  National 
Road,  which  was  intended  to  form  the  great  highway  across  the  Alle- 
ghanies  from  the  Potomac  to  the  Ohio,  was  begun  under  authority  of  Congress 
about  sixty  years  ago,  but  it  had  only  progressed  a  short  distance  beyond 
Cumberland,  Md.,  when  its  construction  was  abandoned,  in  consequence  of 
the  building  of  railways  for  the  same  purpose.  Macadamized  roads  have, 
therefore,  been  confined  to  city  or  suburban  streets,  and  to  a  few  of  the 
older  States  in  the  East.  Even  the  turnpikes,  or  toll-roads,  originally  built 
by  corporations  which  made  their  profit  by  levying  toll  on  each  passing 
horse  or  vehicle,  were  macadamized  only  for  a  small  portion  of  their  width 
in  the  centre,  leaving  earth  roads  on  each  side.  These  latter  were  habit- 
ually used  in  summer,  leaving  the  hard  central  portion,  whose  surface  was 
seldom  kept  smooth  for  use  during  the  rains  and  mud  of  winter. 

With  the  exception  of  these  few  turnpike  high-roads,  American  roads 
have  been  built  of  whatever  material  was  nearest  to  hand.  Frequently,  if 
not  generally,  they  were  made  by  simply  plowing  a  ditch  on  each  side  and 
throwing  the  earth  into  a  mound  in  the  centre.  An  improvement  on  this 
was  to  spread  a  layer  of  bank  gravel  containing  a  large  proportion  of  clay 
over  the  road;  and  on  the  New  England  coast,  where  a  rocky  soil  and  clean 
gravel  or  beach  shingle  were  everywhere  available,  these  materials  were 
used,  and  formed  a  comparatively  hard  and  durable  road  surface.  Through 
the  swamps  and  clay  soils  of  the  South,  where  stone  and  gravel  were  not 
available,  the  corduroy  road  was  much  used.  This  consisted  in  felling 
trees,  stripping  the  branches,  and  placing  the  trunks  across  the  road;  and  it 
was  probably  the  most  inhuman  device  ever  suggested  as  a  means  of  com- 
munication. In  central  New  York,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  West,  plank 


266  ROADS. 

roads  were  at  one  time  constructed,  but  their  lack  of  durability  caused  this 
system  to  be  soon  abandoned. 

Maintenance. — The  condition  of  a  road  depends  not  only  upon  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  constructed,  but  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is  main- 
tained. The  best  of  roads  are  being  constantly  worn  by  traffic,  and  if  they 
are  not  quickly  repaired  whenever  any  defects  appear,  they  are  soon  de- 
stroyed. Macadam's  reputation  was  made  not  in  building  new  roads,  but 
in  repairing  old  roads  and  keeping  them  always  in  good  order.  In  order 
to  accomplish  this  result  incessant  attention  is  necessary,  so  as  to  fill  up  any 
ruts  or  holes  the  moment  they  appear,  and  prevent  them  from  being 
enlarged  by  travel  and  rain.  The  road  thus  gradually  wears  down,  but 
always  presents  a  uniform  and  smooth  surface;  and  when  its  thickness  is 
reduced  to  about  five  inches  it  is  necessary  to  make  general  repairs  by  cov- 
ering it  with  a  new  coating  of  stone.  The  amount  of  wear  is  proportional 
to  the  volume  of  traffic.  On  some  of  the  heavily  traveled  macadam 
streets  of  London  and  Paris  it  has  been  as  much  as  four  inches  in  a  year, 
but  on  high  roads  between  cities  it  is  often  as  low  as  one-half  inch  in  a 
year. 

Nowhere  is  the  art  of  road-making  and  maintenance  carried  to  such 
perfection  as  in  France,  where  the  necessity  of  constant  supervision  and 
prompt  repairs  is  fully  appreciated.  Her  roads  have  a  length  of  about 
200,000  miles,  of  wmVh  more  than  120,000  miles  are  macadamized.  They 
have  cost  nearly  $600,000,000  for  construction,  and  the  sum  of  $18,000,000 
(or  about  three  per  cent,  of  first  cost)  is  annually  spent  for  their  maintenance. 
Until  we  are  prepared  to  expend  the  necessary  sums  for  solid  construction 
and  incessant  maintenance,  we  cannot  have  good  roads.  With  an  area  of 
204,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  38,000,000  inhabitants,  France  has 
about  one  mile  of  road  to  every  square  mile  of  territory,  and  to  every  190 
inhabitants;  its  roads  have  cost  about  $3,000  for  each  square  mile,  and 
about  $18  for  each  inhabitant;  their  maintenance  costs  annually  $90  for 
each  square  mile,  and  48  cents  for  each  inhabitant. 

The  State  of  New  York  has  an  area  of  47,000  square  miles,  and  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  6,500,000,  the  number  of  inhabitants  per  square  mile  being 
about  three-fourths  the  number  in  France.  On  the  basis  of  area,  in  order 
that  its  roads  should  be  equal  to  those  of  France,  their  length  should  be 
46,000  miles  ;  the  first  cost  would  be  $138,000,000,  and  the  annual  cost  of 
maintenance  would  be  $4,140,000,  or  64  cents  for  each  inhabitant.  The 
railroads  of  this  State  have  cost  nearly  $900,000,000,  and  the  annual  expense 
of  maintaining  their  road-beds  is  fully  6  per  cent,  of  their  first  cost.  It  is 
evident  that  it  would  not  be  an  impossible  task  to  create  a  system  of  roads 
corresponding  in  excellence  to  the  railroads  whenever  the  necessity  for 
them  is  fully  recognized  ;  and  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  prove  that  the 
benefits  derived  in  cheapening  the  cost  of  transportation  to  the  railroads,  of 
which  the  roads  would  act  as  feeders,  would  be  more  than  an  equivalent 
for  the  expense.  Nor  would  the  cost  in  reality  be  anything  like  the  large 
sums  above  named,  for  many  of  the  existing  roads  contain  an  abundance 
of  stone,  which  could  be  taken  up,  broken  and  relaid,  after  the  manner  in 
which  Macadam  rebuilt  the  roads  of  England,  the  cost  of  which  is  stated  in 
his  memoir  to  have  been  as  low  as  $600  per  mile.  Owing  to  the  increase 
in  the  cost  of  labor  since  Macadam's  time,  the  cost  would  now  be  about 
$2, 500  per  mile. 


ROADS.  267 

It  is  worth  while  to  note  the  manner  in  which  France  maintains  these 
splendid  roads.  The  data  is  all  available  in  the  ninth  volume  of  Debauve's 
Manual  for  the  Engineers  of  the  Fonts  et  Chaussees.  While  we  have 
no  such  large  body  of  trained  engineers  in  the  public  service,  and  while 
our  political  organization  does  not  permit  the  adoption  of  the  system  as  a 
whole,  yet  there  are  many  of  its  features  which  are  not  only  applicable  to 
as,  but  are  essential  to  any  satisfactory  method  of  road  maintenance. 

The  roads  in  each  department  in  France  are  under  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  Prefect  of  the  department,  and  their  construction  and  repair 
are  entrusted  to  the  engineers  of  the  ponts  et  chaussees.  The  necessary 
funds  for  this  purpose  are  allotted  to  each  department  by  the  Minister  of 
Public  Works.  The  high  roads  are  divided  into  two  classes — national 
roads,  running  through  two  or  more  departments  and  connecting  the  chief 
cities,  and  departmental  roads,  connecting  the  principal  cities  within  a 
single  department.  The  local  roads  are  divided  into  three  classes — the 
important  local  roads,  the  ordinary  local  roads,  and  the  by  roads.  Each 
road  is  thus  classified  according  to  its  use  and  the  traffic  upon  it,  as  deter- 
mined by  actual  count  at  stated  periods.  The  construction  and  the  main- 
tenance are  varied  according  to  the  use  and  the  volume  of  traffic.  Some  of 
the  national  roads  are  paved  with  stone  blocks,  like  city  streets,  for  long 
distances;  others  are  macadamized;  and  the  local  roads  are  of  gravel.  The 
engineer-in-chief  has  charge  of  all  the  roads  in  the  department;  under  him 
are  engineers  having  charge  of  certain  districts,  and  under  each  of  these 
are  superintendents  and  overseers,  each  in  charge  of  a  certain  length  of 
road,  and  with  a  certain  force  of  laborers  and  the  necessary  materials  for 
keeping  the  road  always  in  good  order.  It  is,  in  short,  the  same  system  of 
constant  inspection,  maintenance  and  repair  which  is  in  use  on  every  one 
of  our  principal  railroads,  but  which  is  never  applied  to  our  roads. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  maintenance,  as  laid  down  in  the  Man- 
ual of  Instruction,  are  only  two  in  number — viz.:  i.  The  removal  of  the 
daily  wear  of  the  road,  whether  in  the  form  of  mud  or  dust;  2.  The  prompt 
replacement  of  this  wear  by  new  materials. 

Each  road  is  divided  into  sections  called  cantons  ;  on  heavily  traveled 
roads  a  canton  may  be  only  100  yards  long,  on  light  roads  it  may  be  a  mile; 
and  to  each  canton  there  is  a  workman  known  as  a  cantonmer,  who  is 
responsible  for  the  condition  of  the  road  in  his  canton.  He  lives  in  the 
immediate  vicinity,  and  is  obliged  to  be  on  the  road  from  5  A.  M.  to  7  p.  M. 
in  summer,  and  from  sunrise  to  sunset  in  winter;  he  can  rest  two  hours  for 
his  noonday  meal,  but  with  this  exception  he  must  be  always  at  work 
between  the  hours  above  stated.  He  has  the  following  tools — viz. :  wheel- 
barrow, iron  shovel,  wooden  shovel,  pick,  iron  scraper,  wooden  scraper, 
broom,  iron  rake,  crowbar,  hammer  and  tape-line.  His  duties  are  :  i.  To 
keep  the  gutters  clear  so  that  the  water  can  run  off  freely.  2.  To  scrape  off 
the  mud  in  wet  weather  and  sweep  off  the  dust  in  dry  weather,  so  as  to 
keep  his  canton  always  clean.  3.  To  clean  off  the  snow  as  far  as  possible, 
and  break  up  the  ice  on  the  surface  of  the  road  and  in  the  gutters  during 
the  winter.  4.  To  pick  up  all  loose  stones,  break  them,  and  pile  them  in 
regularly  shaped  piles  on  the  side  of  the  road,  ready  for  use  in  repairing 
ruts  and  holes.  5.  To  keep  the  mile-posts  in  good  order.  6.  To  take  care 
of  the  trees  bordering  the  road. 

The  six  adjacent  cantonniers  form  a  squad  called  a  brigade,  which  is 
under  a  foreman  known  as  a  cantonnier-chef,  and  forms  the  unit  of  work- 


268  ROADS. 

ing  force.  Several  brigades  are  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  conducteur, 
or  superintendent,  who  has  charge  of  a  section  of  forty  or  fifty  miles  of 
road,  for  the  good  order  of  which  he  is  responsible,  and  every  part  of  which 
he  must  inspect  and  report  upon  twice  a  month.  Several  sections  are 
placed  under  an  engineer,  who  has  charge  of  all  the  roads  in  an  arrondis- 
sement,  or  township,  and  must  inspect  every  part  of  them  once  in  three 
months.  Finally,  the  engineer-in-chief  has  charge  of  all  the  roads  in  the 
department  or  province,  eighty-seven  of  which  constitute  the  territory  of 
France. 

During  the  winter,  when  the  repairs  are  heavy,  and  whenever  a  gen- 
eral resurfacing  of  the  road  is  undertaken,  the  regular  cantonniers  are 
assisted  by  auxiliary  labor  hired  for  the  time  being.  The  broken  stone 
required  for  such  work  is  furnished  by  contract, 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  is  not  a  mere  paper  organization, 
or  code  of  forgotten  statutes,  but  an  actual  working  system  in  full  opera- 
tion to-day.  It  is  the  result  of  120  years  of  thought  and  labor  devoted  to 
an  important  subject  by  some  of  the  best  minds  in  France,  and  the  result 
is  the  most  superb  system  of  roads  to  be  found  anywhere  in  the  world. 
The  cost  is  surprisingly  small,  considering  what  is  accomplished.  The 
actual  cost  per  mile  of  maintaining  the  national  roads  (all  macadamized)  is 
given  in  Debauve's  Manual  for  each  of  the  eighty-seven  departments.  It 
varies  from  $60  to  $500  per  mile,  with  an  average  of  $150,  of  which  about 
half  is  for  labor  and  half  for  materials.  For  maintaining  less  important 
roads  the  average  cost  per  mile  is  as  follows  :  departmental  roads,  $135  ; 
important  local  roads,  $92  ;  ordinary  local  roads,  $57  ;  by-roads,  $42. 

It  would  seem  as  if  a  somewhat  analogous  system  might  be  devised  in 
America,  by  which  the  roads  in  each  State  might  be  placed  in  charge  of  the 
State  Engineer,  the  repairs  in  each  county  to  be  made  by  the  county 
survey,  or  according  to  the  instructions  of  the  State  Engineer,  a  uniform 
road  tax  of,  say,  five  mills  to  be  levied  throughout  the  State,  but  the 
amount  of  taxes  raised  in  each  county  to  be  expended  in  that  county.  With 
an  estimated  valuation  in  the  State  of  New  York  of  $1,200,000,000  (exclu- 
sive of  city  property)  for  the  census  of  1890,  such  a  tax  would  yield  $6,000,- 
ooo  per  annum  for  the  roads  of  the  entire  State  ;  and  this  sum  judiciously 
expended,  according  to  well-digested  plans  and  under  competent  supervis- 
ion, would  in  a  few  years  rebuild  nearly  all  our  important  roads  and  main- 
tain them  in  good  order.*  The  present  system  of  independent  action  or 
inaction  by  each  Board  of  County  Commissioners  is  known  to  be  a  complete 
failure.  What  it  costs  for  the  entire  State  cannot  be  stated,  for  there  are 
no  statistics  on  the  subject.  Possibly,  if  the  statistics  were  available,  it 
would  be  found  that  the  total  cost  is  fully  as  great  as  the  sum  above  stated, 

*  A  bill  of  a  somewhat  similar  character  is  now  pending  in  the  Pennsylvania  Legis- 
lature. It  provides  for  a  uniform  road  tax  of  seven  and  a  half  mills,  to  be  raised  in 
each  county  by  a  board  of  road  commissioners,  and  expended  under  their  direction 
by  a  county  engineer,  provided  that  not  less  than  forty  per  cent,  of  the  road  tax  shall 
be  expended  in  macadamizing  or  other  permanent  improvement.  The  act  further  pro- 
vides that  the  County  Engineer  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  that 
the  roads  shall  be  classified  into  highways,  roads,  and  lanes,  that  the  county  shall  be 
subdivided  into  districts,  each  in  charge  of  a  supervisor,  and  that  he  shall  make  plans 
and  specifications  for  all  work  upon  roads,  and  report  at  stated  periods  concerning  the 
same.  The  only  defect  in  the  proposed  plan  is  its  failure  to  provide  some  central 
supervision  for  the  entire  State,  so  that  the  roads  should  be  constructed  and  maintained 
on  a  uniform  system  in  the  different  counties. 


ROADS.  269 

although  the  result  is  almost  nothing.  As  for  toll  roads,  and  compulsory 
labor  or  a  tax  in  lieu  thereof,  they  are  both  out  of  date  at  the  end  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

In  brief,  then,  the  only  system  for  good  country  roads,  as  shown  by 
universal  experience,  is  a  bed  of  stone,  broken  into  small  angular  fragments 
and  thoroughly  rolled,  and  maintained  in  good  order  by  a  small  force  of 
laborers,  under  proper  organization  and  supervision,  constantly  at  work 
summer  and  winter  in  cleaning  off  the  road  and  repairing  any  defects  the 
moment  they  appear  ;  to  which  must  be  added,  from  time  to  time,  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  traffic  and  resulting  wear,  a  general  renewal  of  the 
road  surface  with  the  same  materials. 

Pavements. — City  streets  are  simply  roads  of  very  heavy  traffic,  and 
the  problem  of  paving  is  road-making  designed  to  meet  certain  special  con- 
ditions. A  vast  amount  of  ingenuity  has  been  expended  in  the  effort  to 
make  pavements  that  would  be  indestructible,  but  the  effort  is  entirely 
futile.  In  the  constant  attrition  of  wheels  and  pavement  something  must 
be  worn,  and  if  the  pavement  is  indestructible  the  vehicles  will  soon  be 
destroyed.  That  pavement  is  the  cheapest  which  affords  the  least  wear  to 
its  own  surface  and  to  the  vehicles  combined.  A  good  pavement  should  be 
durable,  smooth,  cleanly,  as  nearly  noiseless  as  possible,  and  afford  a  good 
foot-hold  for  horses.  Every  form  of  construction  material — iron,  brick, 
stone,*  and  wood — has  been  tried  in  every  conceivable  manner  of  applica- 
tion during  the  last  fifty  years.  The  results  of  this  large  experience — as  to 
cost  and  durability,  ease  of  traction  and  cleanliness,  noiselessness  and  slip- 
periness — have  been  carefully  studied  by  French  and  English  engineers, 
and  to  a  certain,  though  much  less  extent  by  American  engineers.  While 
it  cannot  be  said  that  the  exact  amount  of  wear  in  terms  of  the  traffic  has 
been  fully  determined,  nor  that  the  effect  of  different  pavements  upon  the 
wear  of  vehicles  and  the  cost  of  transportation  has  been  mathematically 
demonstrated,  yet  certain  fundamental  principles  are  now  generally 
admitted  by  all  who  have  given  careful  thought  to  the  matter — viz.:  i.  A 
foundation  is  necessary,  which  constitutes  the  real  pavement,  and  which  is 
indestructible.  2.  On  this  foundation  a  suitable  wearing  surface  should  be 
laid,  and  renewed  from  time  to  time.  3.  The  only  suitable  wearing  surfaces 
are  stone  blocks,  asphalt,  and  wood. 

In  reality  these  principles  are  only  a  development  of  the  macadam 
road.  Since  the  surface  of  macadam  is  worn  too  rapidly  by  heavy  traffic, 
it  must  be  protected  with  a  renewable  surface,  leaving  the  body  of  broken 
stone  as  the  permanent  road-bed.  As  broken  stone  and  cement  mixed  with 
sand  will  acquire  in  a  few  days  the  solidity  that  macadam  will  attain  only 
after  several  months  or  years,  the  bed  of  macadam  metal  has  naturally 
given  place  to  a  bed  of  concrete.  This  is  universally  conceded  to  be  the 
proper  foundation  for  any  good  city  pavement.  A  thickness  of  six  inches 
has  been  found  by  experience  to  be  amply  sufficient ;  in  cases  of  exception- 
ally heavy  traffic  it  should  be  made  of  Portland  cement,  but  in  all  other 
cases  the  ordinary  American  cements  are  quite  strong  enough. 

In  selecting  the  wearing  surface,  due  regard  should  be  had  to  the 
gradient,  the  traffic  and  the  climate.  Stone  blocks  are  the  most  durable, 
but  they  are  the  most  expensive,  the  most  noisy,  and  offer  the  greatest 

*  Asphalt  pavements  are  really  a  form  of  stone.  The  asphalt  which  they  contain 
acts  as  a  cement  to  hold  together  the  limestone  or  sand  which  forms  the  body  of  the 
material,  being  from  85  per  cent,  to  95  per  cent,  of  its  weight 


270  ROADS. 

resistance  to  traffic.  Asphalt  is  the  smoothest  and  cleanest,  but  it  should 
not  be  used  on  grades  of  more  than  4^  in  100.  Wood  is  the  least  durable, 
but  it  is  smooth  and  noiseless.  Among  different  kinds  of  stone,  sandstone 
and  limestone  are  not  sufficiently  durable,  and  trap  is  so  hard  that  it 
polishes  and  becomes  very  slippery  under  traffic.  Hence,  granite  is  consid- 
ered the  best  stone  to  use.  Of  asphalt  there  are  two  varieties,  the  natural 
bituminous  limestone  of  France  and  the  artificial  bituminous  sandstone, 
made  by  mixing  sand  with  pure  asphalt,  which  is  largely  used  in  many 
American  cities.  Of  wood  many  varieties,  both  hard  and  soft,  have  been 
used,  but  the  best  wooden  pavements  of  London  and  Paris  are  made  of 
Baltic  fir. 

Acting  on  these  general  principles,  engineers  have  usually  recom- 
mended granite  blocks  in  streets  of  heavy  traffic  or  steep  grades,  and 
asphalt  or  wood  for  residence  streets.  They  have  for  many  years  con- 
demned macadam  as  a  city  pavement  on  account  of  its  lack  of  durability 
and  because  it  cannot  be  kept  clean,  being  always  muddy  when  watered 
and  dusty  when  dry.  There  are  still  large  areas  of  macadam  in  the  cities 
of  Europe  as  well  as  of  New  England,  but  the  expense  of  maintaining  them 
is  so  great  that  they  are  being  replaced  as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  wood 
pavement  on  a  concrete  foundation  has  not  been  popular  in  America  on 
account  of  its  lack  of  durability,  the  wood  surface  requiring  renewal  every 
five  or  six  years  ;  but  it  is  largely  used  in  London  and  Paris. 

The  granite  block  surface  has  been  used  more  largely  than  any  other, 
an  undue  importance  having  been  attributed  to  the  element  of  durability, 
regardless  of  all  other  qualities.  But  of  late  years  the  questions  of  noise- 
lessness,  cleanliness  and  ease  of  traction  have  been  more  fully  considered, 
and  the  result  has  been  a  large  development  of  smooth-surface  pavements 
— /.  <?. ,  asphalt  and  wood. 

The  limits  of  this  article  do  not  admit  an  exhaustive  statement  of  the 
relative  merits  of  the  different  kinds  of  road  surfaces,  but  certain  facts  in 
relation  to  them  may  be  briefly  stated. 

i.  As  to  Durability. — The  average  life  of  granite  blocks  under  heavy 
traffic  in  London  is  fifteen  years,  during  which  time  the  wear  is  about  two 
inches,  and  the  edges  become  so  rounded  that  the  pavement  is  as  rough  as 
cobblestones.  They  can  then  be  taken  up,  redressed,  and  laid  on  streets 
of  lighter  traffic,  where  they  will  last  for  twenty  years  more,  during  which 
time  the  wear  is  another  two  inches.  The  blocks  are  then  so  worn  that 
they  have  not  a  sufficient  depth  for  a  pavement  surface,  but  can  be  sent  to 
the  crusher  and  broken  up  for  concrete. 

The  average  life  of  asphalt  as  laid  in  London  and  Paris  is  seventeen 
years.  Cheapside  was  paved  with  asphalt  in  1871,  and  after  sustaining  the 
heaviest  traffic  for  seventeen  years,  it  had  worn  down  about  one  inch  when 
it  was  resurfaced  in  1878.  The  life  of  asphalt  as  laid  in  America  is  not  yet 
fully  determined.  The  first  good  asphalt  pavement  was  laid  on  Pennsyl- 
vania Avenue,  in  Washington,  in  1876,  and  it  is  reported  that  it  will  be  re- 
surfaced this  year,  after  thirteen  years'  use.  On  the  other  hand,  several 
streets  laid  in  Washington  in  1879  are  in  perfect  order,  and  do  not  show  any 
apparent  diminution  in  thickness  after  ten  years'  use.  It  is  probable  that 
the  average  life  will  prove  to  be  about  fifteen  years. 

The  average  life  of  wood  in  London  and  Paris  is  from  six  to  seven 
years,  as  shown  by  the  experience  of  large  numbers  of  streets. 


ROADS.  271 

2.  Ease  of   Traction. — Elaborate  experiments  have  been  made    by 
Morin,  MacNeil,  Rumford,  Gordon,  and  others,  to  determine  the  force  re- 
quired to  draw  a  given  load  on  various  surfaces.     The  results  agree  fairly 
well,  and  show  that  the  force  is  from  fo  to  ^  of  the  load,  depending  on  the 
surface.     The  result  of  all  the  experiments,  as  regards  the  relative  value  of 
different  surfaces,  is  as  follows  : 

Force  required  to 
draw  one  ton. 

Iron 10  pounds. 

Asphalt 15 

Wood 21 

Best  stone  blocks 33 

Inferior  stone  blocks 50 

Average  cobble-stone  90 

Macadam . .'   100 

Earth 200 

— /.  £.,  if  a  certain  amount  of  force  is  necessary  to  draw  one  ton  on  iron 
rails  on  level  ground,  it  will  require  additional  force  in  the  proportions 
above  stated  to  draw  the  same  load  on  the  other  surfaces.  The  importance 
of  these  facts  ij  but  little  realized,  and  in  the  absence  of  accurate  statistics 
as  to  the  number  of  vehicles,  the  amount  of  tonnage,  and  the  distance 
traveled  in  large  cities,  it  is  impossible  accurately  to  demonstrate  their 
effect ;  but  it  can  be  approximately  estimated.  For  instance,  in  the  city  of 
New  York  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  12,000  trucks,  carrying  an  average 
load  of  \y2  tons  for  12  miles  on  each  of  300  days  in  the  year,  at  an  average 
daily  cost  of  $4  for  each  truck.  The  result  is  about  65,000,000  tons  trans- 
ported one  mile  in  every  year,  at  a  total  cost  of  $14,400,000,  or  at  the  rate 
of  over  22  cents  per  ton-mile.  The  excessive  nature  of  this  charge  is  seen 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  same  goods  are  now  carried  by  rail  at  ^  of 
i  cent  per  mile.  On  asphalt  or  wood  pavements  the  same  horses  could 
transport  a  load  three  times  as  heavy  as  on  the  present  rough  stone  pave- 
ments. If  the  saving  in  transportation  is  proportional  to  the  load  carried  it 
would  amount  to  nearly  $10,000,000  per  annum.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  at 
least  one-half  of  this  amount  would  be  saved  by  substituting  smooth  pave- 
ments for  those  now  in  use  in  New  York. 

3.  Cleanliness. — The  joints  of  a  block  pavement  are  receptacles  for 
manure,  urine,  and  all  other  street  filth,  and  these  joints  can  never  be  per- 
fectly cleaned.     The  only  remedy  is  to  make  the  joints  as  small  as  possible. 
This  is  easily  accomplished  in  wooden  pavements  where  the  blocks  are 
sawed  to  exact  shape.     In  stone  pavements  it  is  more  difficult,  but  the  dirt 
spaces  are  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  filling  the  joints  with  gravel  and  hot 
tar,  which  renders  them  water-proof,  and  fills  them  up  flush  with  the  sur- 
face.    When  this  work  is  carefully  done  with  proper  materials  the  filling  is 
very  durable,  and  remains  in  place  for  many  years.     It  can  easily  be  re- 
placed when  worn  or  broken  by  travel,  by  raking  out  the  joints  and  refilling 
them.    On  asphalt  pavements  there  are  no  joints,  the  surface  being  continu- 
ous, and  for  this  reason  the  asphalt  is  the  cleanest  of  all  pavements. 

There  are  two  methods  of  cleaning  streets.  The  cheapest,  and  the  one 
most  commonly  used,  is  to  clean  the  pavements  (preferably  at  night,  and 
after  being  sprinkled  to  lay  the  dust)  by  revolving  brooms  attached  to  carts. 
The  broom  is  set  at  an  angle,  and  revolved  by  cog-wheels  connecting  with 
the  main  wheels.  The  dirt  is  thus  brushed  into  the  gutter,  where  it  is  col- 
lected into  piles  and  removed  by  carts.  The  other  method  consists  in 


272  ROADS. 

removing  by  hand  every  particle  of  manure  or  dirt  the  instant  it  is  placed 
on  the  street.  Boys  or  men  are  stationed  on  every  block,  and  provided 
with  a  broom  and  dust-pan,  or  canvas  bag,  into  which  they  brush  the  dirt, 
and  deposit  it  in  a  receptacle  placed  on  the  sidewalk,  whence  it  is  removed 
every  few  hours  by  carts.  Broadway  between  Seventeenth  and  Twenty- 
third  Streets,  and  Fourteenth  and  Twenty-third  Streets  between  Fifth  and 
Sixth  Avenues,  in  front  of  the  large  dry  goods  stores,  are  thus  cleaned  by 
private  enterprise.  In  London  this  work  is  done  at  public  expense  by  large 
numbers  of  boys  between  ten  and  fourteen  years  of  age,  whose  dexterity  in 
darting  between  the  horses  and  wheels  in  the  most  crowded  thoroughfares 
is  quite  remarkable.  Iron  boxes  are  placed  on  the  curbstones  at  intervals 
of  about  150  feet,  into  which  they  empty  the  contents  of  their  dust-pans, 
and  the  boxes  are  in  turn  emptied  into  carts,  and  hauled  away  every  few 
hours.  The  expense  of  this  hand  labor  is  much  greater  than  a  daily  sweep- 
ing with  machines,  but  it  is  very  much  more  effective.  Where  the  streets 
are  not  properly  cleaned,  sprinkling  is  resorted  to  in  order  to  lay  the  dust, 
and  the  result  is  only  to  substitute  one  evil  for  another,  for  the  sprinkling 
turns  the  dust  into  mud,  and  renders  all  pavements  very  slippery.  Pave- 
ments of  all  kinds  should  be  kept  dry  and  perfectly  clean. 

4.  Noise. — The  asphalt  and  wood  pavements  have  a  great  superiority 
over  stone  in  the  matter  of  noise.     Wood  is  probably  the  most  noiseless  of 
all,  as  the  only  sound  is  a  low  rumbling,  due  to  the  wheels  passing  over  the 
joints  of  the  blocks.     On  asphalt  there  is  a  click  of  the  horses'  feet,  but  no 
noise  from  the  wheels  ;  this  is  hardly  noticeable  in  summer,  but  is  observed 
in  winter,  when  the  pavement  becomes  harder.      But  both  the  rumbling 
and  the  click  are  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  roar  caused  by  the 
mingling  of  countless  blows  of  iron  shoes  and  wheel  tires  on  stone  blocks. 
Several  eminent  physicians  have  expressed  the  opinion  that  this  incessant 
noise  is  the  chief  cause  of  the  nervous  diseases  which  have  come  to  be  such 
a  feature  of  modern  city  life. 

5.  Foot-hold. — The  opinion  generally  prevails  that  granite  block  pave- 
ments are  less  slippery  than  smooth  pavements,  but  careful  observations 
show  that  this  is  not  the  fact.   The  best  foot-hold  for  a  horse  is  afforded  by 
the  soft,  dry  soil  of  a  race-track  ;  next  to  this  is  a  gravel  road,  and  then 
macadam.      But  all  of  these  surfaces  are  out  of  the  question  on  heavily 
traveled  streets.    Exhaustive  experiments,  conducted  by  Colonel  Haywood 
in  London,  showed  that  the  relative  proportion  of  falls  of  horses  on  differ- 
ent pavements,  under  the  average  conditions  of  weather,  was  as  follows  : 
On  asphalt,  i;  on  granite,  1.47;  on  wood,  o.     Similar  observations  in  Amer- 
ican cities  established  the  following  :     On  asphalt,  i;  on  granite,  1.40;  on 
wood,  o. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  under  ordinary  conditions,  such  as  exist  on  prob- 
ably three  hundred  and  fifty  days  in  a  year,  the  number  of  accidents  to 
horses  is  much  greater  on  stone  pavements  than  on  either  asphalt  or  wood. 
In  fact,  the  surface  of  granite,  or  of  any  stone  sufficiently  hard  for  use  on 
streets,  polishes  under  traffic  and  becomes  very  slippery.  The  only  foot- 
hold afforded  to  the  horses  is  in  the  joints  between  the  blocks.  On  the 
other  hand,  under  certain  conditions,  such  as  a  light,  dry  snow,  or  a  fine 
rain  on  a  dirty  surface,  asphalt  and  wood  are  more  slippery  than  stone. 
The  surface  of  these  materials  is  not  so  slippery  even  under  these  circum- 
stances as  the  stone,  but  they  have  no  joints  to  prevent  the  horse  from 
completely  losing  his  footing.  The  number  of  accidents  on  stone  pave- 


ROADS.  273 

ments,  under  the  circumstances  named,  is  very  great,  but  not  so  great  as 
on  the  smoother  pavements.  But  when  kept  dry  and  clean,  both  asphalt 
and  wood  afford  a  perfectly  good  foot-hold  for  horses,  if  reasonable  care  is 
exercised  in  turning  corners.  It  is  the  practice  in  London  and  Paris  to 
sprinkle  sand  on  the  smooth  pavements,  when  the  conditions  are  unfavor- 
able, and  the  same  practice  is  followed  daily  under  all  circumstances  by 
the  street-car  companies  in  New  York  on  the  stone  pavements  used  by 
their  horses. 

6.  Cost. — The  prices  of  labor  and  materials  differ  so  widely  in  various 
cities,  and  at  times  in  the  same  city,  the  conditions  of  traffic  and  cleanli- 
ness are  so  different  on  different  streets,  and  the  character  of  the  mainten- 
ance is  so  different,  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  form  comparative  tables 
of  cost  of  the  different  road  surfaces  that  can  be  relied  upon  as  accurate. 
It  is  evident  at  a  glance  that  the  cost  of  construction  is  only  one  factor  in 
the  problem,  and  not  the  most  important  one.  The  main  question  to  be 
determined  is  the  cost  of  construction  and  interest  on  the  same  added  to 
cost  of  maintenance  during  a  long  term  of  years.  And  by  maintenance  is 
meant  maintaining  the  surface  in  a  condition  practically  as  good  as  when 
first  laid.  Of  course  if  stone  blocks  are  placed  upon  a  street  and  become 
full  of  ruts  and  depressions  at  the  end  of  five  years  (as  has  happened  on 
Broadway  between  Seventeenth  and  Twenty- third  Streets),  these  defects 
will  not  become  very  much  worse  in  another  twenty  or  even  thirty  years, 
even  if  no  repairs  are  made.  The  cost  of  maintenance  under  such  circum- 
stances would  be  very  different  from  the  figures  obtained  from  the  experi- 
ence of  Paris,  London,  Manchester,  or  Liverpool,  where  the  surface  is 
always  kept  in  good  order.  In  the  following  statements  the  comparison  is 
made  between  different  pavements  laid  in  the  best  manner,  with  concrete 
foundations,  and  maintained  at  all  times  in  a  condition  substantially  as 
good  as  when  first  put  down. 

Cost. — In  Law  &  Clark's  Treatise  on  Roads  are  given  a  great  number 
of  tables  of  first  cost  and  maintenance  of  pavements  in  English  cities,  and 
in  Debauve's  Manual  and  the  notes  of  the  engineers  accompanying  the 
annual  budgets  of  Paris  are  given  similar  data  in  regard  to  French 
cities.  They  differ  widely,  according  to  varying  circumstances;  but  all 
agree  in  showing  the  excessive  cost  of  macadam  under  city  traffic,  which 
ranges  from  fifty  cents  to  over  two  dollars  per  yard  in  every  year.  They 
also  agree  in  the  general  statement  that  of  pavements  proper  the  granite  is 
the  cheapest,  asphalt  next,  and  wood  the  most  expensive.  The  only  scien- 
tific attempt  to  reduce  these  varying  data  to  a  uniform  basis  of  cost  for  a 
given  traffic  is  that  made  by  Mr.  Deacon  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Insti- 
tution of  Civil  Engineers  in  1879,  and  since  widely  quoted.  He  had  extensive 
statistics  of  cost  and  traffic  in  several  English  cities,  and  he  reduced  them  to 
a  uniform  standard  of  100,000  tons  of  traffic  per  year  on  each  yard  of  width 
of  the  pavement.  This  is  equivalent  to  about  one  hundred  tons  per  day  on 
each  foot  of  width,  and  would  be  produced  on  a  street  forty  feet  wide  by 
about  5,000  vehicles  of  an  average  weight,  including  load,  of  1,800  pounds 
each.  This  is  substantially  the  traffic  of  Fifth  Avenue,  in  New  York.  He 
counted  interest  at  three  per  cent.,  sinking-fund  at  fifty  years,  and  mainten- 
ance at  actual  cost.  His  figures  are  as  follows  : 

For  100,000  tons  annual  traffic  per  yard  of  width :  granite  blocks,  26 
cents  per  yard  per  year;  bituminous  concrete,  45  cents;  wood,  52  cents; 
macadam,  71  cents. 


274  ROADS. 

The  "bituminous  concrete"  referred  to  in  his  tables  was  a  mixture  of 
coal-tar  and  gravel  used  in  Liverpool.  Data  now  available  for  asphalt 
streets  would  place  their  cost  about  midway  been  granite  blocks  and  bitu- 
minous concrete — /.  <?.,  about  35  cents. 

In  America,  owing  to  the  absence  of  accurate  statistics  on  the  cost  of 
maintaining  granite,  it  is  difficult  to  give  exact  figures,  but  it  is  believed, 
from  present  experience,  that  the  relative  expense  of  the  granite  block 
pavement  on  Fifth  Avenue  and  the  asphalt  pavement  on  Madison  Avenue 
in  fifty  years  will  be  as  follows,  per  square  yard  per  annum  : 

Granite.      Asphalt. 

Cost  of  construction  $4.60  $3-75 

Interest  at  3  per  cent.,  and  sinking-fund  at  50  years 27  .22 

Annual  maintenance 04  .10 

2.50x3 

Three  renewals  of  surface  at  $2.50 =   15 

50 
2.25x4 

Four  renewals  of  surface  at  $2  25 =  .18 

50 

Totalperyear 46  .50 

In  the  above  statement  the  cost  of  renewing  granite  surface  is  taken  at 
$2  per  yard,  The  actual  cost,  on  the  basis  of  the  contract  price  for  Fifth 
Avenue,  would  be  $3.75,  from  which  should  be  deducted  the  value  of  the 
old  stones,  estimated  at  $1.25,  which  would  be  available  for  redressing  and 
use  on  the  lighter  streets. 

There  are  no  statistics  in  America  as  to  the  expense  during  a  term  of 
years  of  wood  pavement  on  a  concrete  foundation.  In  Paris  the  current 
contracts  run  for  eighteen  years,  and  the  entire  cost,  both  of  construction 
and  maintenance,  is  paid  in  annual  installments  during  that  period  of  89 
cents  per  yard  for  each  year.  It  is  stipulated  that  the  surface  is  to  be 
renewed  every  six  years. 

In  brief,  then,  of  the  three  wearing  surfaces  granite  block  is  the  cheapest, 
but  at  the  same  time  the  noisiest,  the  most  destructive  to  vehicles,  and  the 
most  expensive  for  transportation.  Asphalt  is  the  smoothest  and  cleanest, 
and  is  slightly  more  expensive  than  granite;  wood  is  the  most  noiseless,  is 
quite  smooth,  but  is  the  most  expensive. 

There  are  various  other  pavements,  such  as  brick,  wooden  blocks  on 
plank,  macadam,  etc.,  which  are  useful  in  villages  and  small  towns,  but  are 
incapable  of  standing  the  traffic  of  large  cities,  and  hence  are  not  discussed 
here. 

Street  Railways. — One  of  the  principal  features  of  road-making  within 
city  limits  is  the  construction  of  street  railways.  It  is  less  than  forty  years 
since  they  were  introduced,  and  their  greatest  development  has  taken  place 
during  the  last  fifteen  years.  Their  use  is  not  fully  comprehended  in 
Europe,  which  still  adheres  in  the  main  to  omnibuses  and  cabs  as  means 
of  public  transport.  London  alone  has  more  than  15,000  cabs,  and  while 
these,  in  connection  with  smooth  pavements,  are  a  great  luxury  for  the 
rich,  they  afford  a  very  inadequate  service  for  the  poor.  In  America  the 
street  cars  are  universally  employed  in  cities  of  all  sizes,  and  with  the  final 
perfection  of  the  mechanical  motors  in  place  of  horses,  they  will  have  com- 
pletely solved  the  problem  of  passenger  traffic  in  cities.  No  idea  of 
restricting  their  use  would  be  tolerated  for  a  moment.  Their  utility  is  so 
great  that  until  recently  the  managers  have  been  allowed  to  adopt  the  form 
of  construction  which  they  considered  cheapest  and  most  suitable  for  their 


ROADS. 


275 


cars,  regardless  of  the  rights  of  others  who  make  a  common  use  of  the 
streets.  Ordinarily  they  have  built  their  roads  with  cross-ties,  on  which 
were  placed  longitudinal  sleepers,  and  to  these  were  spiked  a  rail  with  a 
broad  base  and  without  any  vertical  web  or  girder.  The  ordinary  forms 
are  the  New  York  rail  (Fig.  4)  and  the  Philadelphia  rail  (Fig.  5).  The 


longitudinal  sleepers  quickly  rot,  the  spikes  pull  out,  leaving  the  rail  loose, 
and  the  rail  itself  has  a  high  shoulder  or  center-piece,  which  twists  the 
wheels  of  every  passing  vehicle,  and  not  infrequently  breaks  the  axle. 
Within  the  last  few  years  a  more  permanent  construction  has  been  devised 
by  the  use  of  a  girder  rail  whose  vertical  web  gives  the  necessary  stiffness 
and  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  the  longitudinal  sleeper.  The  rail  rests 


276  ROADS. 

upon  chairs  securely  fastened  to  the  cross-ties,  and  no  spikes  are  neces- 
sary. If  the  cross-ties  are  embedded  in  concrete,  the  construction  is  very 
solid  and  permanent.  The  form  of  the  head  of  the  rail  is,  however,  the 
most  important  feature  as  regards  the  obstruction  to  street  traffic.  The 
center-bearing  rail  is  shown  in  Fig.  4,  the  side-bearing  in  Figs.  5  and  6,  and 
the  flat  grooved  rail  in  Fig.  7.  It  needs  only  a  glance  at  these  sections  to  see 
the  great  superiority  of  the  last  form,  by  which  the  obstruction  to  vehicles 
is  almost  wholly  removed.  Wheels  pass  over  it  at  any  angle  without  catch- 
ing in  the  groove.  This  form  of  rail  has  been  in  use  in  European  cities  for 
many  years,  and  it  has  lately  been  introduced  in  Washington  and  in  Boston. 
Objection  is  made  to  it  by  the  street  car  companies  on  the  ground  that  the 
groove  becomes  filled  with  dirt  in  summer  and  with  ice  in  winter  ;  but  these 
objections  are  of  the  same  specious  character  as  those  so  long  used  by  elec- 
trical companies  in  opposition  to  placing  their  wires  underground,  and  do 
not,  in  fact,  constitute  any  practical  difficulty.  While  the  center-bearing 
rail  is  undoubtedly  the  best  for  the  interests  of  the  street-car  companies, 
yet  it  is  an  intolerable  nuisance  for  all  others  who  use  the  streets.  And  this 
nuisance  is  wholly  unjustifiable  when  it  can  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  another 
form  of  rail. 

THE    COMMON     ROADS* 

We  are  permitted  to  present  here  an  abstract  of  Professor 
Shaler's  article  in  Scribncr's  Magazine.  We  have  already  alluded 
editorially  to  the  appearing  of  such  articles  in  our  popular  magazines 
as  a  hopeful  sign  of  the  times. 

I  propose  in  the  following  pages  to  take  up  the  most  important  ways  of 
commerce — viz. ,  the  ordinary  roads. 

The  United  States,  as  a  whole,  remains  less  provided  with  such  means 
of  communication  than  any  other  area  of  equal  general  culture  in  the  world. 

Toll  Roads. — The  difference  between  the  road-making  motive  of  the 
New  Englander,  accustomed  to  the  strong  government  of  the  town  system, 
and  of  those  from  the  Virginia  group  of  States,  who  are  bred  under  the  weak 
communul  system  of  the  county  organization,  is  perhaps  better  shown  in 
the  matter  of  roadways  than  in  any  other  feature  of  the  social  life.  At  the 
present  time  in  New  England  there  is  scarce  a  single  toll  road,  except  it  be 
where,  as  in  the  White  Mountains,  ways  have  been  constructed  for  pleasure 
traveling  alone.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Kentucky  and  the  other  States 
which  have  inherited  their  theories  of  life  from  Virginia,  there  are  no  good 
ways  which  are  really  the  property  of  the  public. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  toll-road  district  of  the  United  States 
has  before  it  a  problem  of  a  far  more  menacing  nature  than  that  afforded 
by  our  railway  system.  The  turnpikes  should  be  made  free. 

Construction  and  Maintenance. — In  most  rural  districts  of  the  United 
States  the  common  roads  are  built  and  maintained  in  the  most  ignorant  and 
inefficient  manner.  In  no  other  phase  of  public  duties  does  the  American 
citizen  appear  to  such  disadvantage  as  in  the  construction  of  roads.  The 
voting  part  of  the  population  is  summoned  each  year  to  give  one  or  two 
days  to  working  out  the  road  tax.  The  busy  people  and  those  who  are 
forehanded  may  pay  their  assessment  in  money  ;  but  the  most  of  the  popu- 
lation finds  it  more  convenient  to  attend  the  annual  road-making  in  person. 

*xx,  333. 


ROADS.  277 

Theoretically  the  gangs  of  men  are  under  the  supervision  of  a  road-master. 
More  commonly  some  elder  of  the  multitude  is  by  common  consent  absolved 
from  personal  labor  and  made  superintendent  of  operations. 

Arriving  on  the  ground  long  after  the  usual  time  of  beginning  work, 
the  road-makers  proceed  to  discuss  the  general  question  of  road-making 
and  other  matters  of  public  concern,  until  slow-acting  conscience  convinces 
them  that  they  should  be  about  their  task.  They  then  with  much  delibera- 
tion take  the  mud  out  of  the  roadside  ditches,  if,  indeed  the  way  is  ditched 
at  all,  and  plaster  the  same  on  the  centre  of  the  road.  A  plow  is  brought 
into  requisition,  which  destroys  the  best  part  of  the  road,  that  which  is 
partly  grassed  and  bush-grown,  and  the  soft  mass  is  heaped  up  in  the  cen- 
tral parts  of  the  way.  The  sloughs  or  cradle-holes  are  filled  with  this  mate- 
rial, or  perhaps  a  little  brush  may  be  cut  and  heaped  in,  making  a  very 
frail  support  for  the  wheels.  An  hour  or  two  is  consumed  at  noonday  by 
lunch  and  a  further  discussion  of  public  and  private  affairs.  A  little  work 
is  done  in  the  afternoon,  and  at  the  end  of  the  day  the  road-making  is 
abandoned  until  the  next  year. 

Cost. — If  we  take  the  misapplied  expenses  of  our  country  ways  ;  if  we 
count  at  the  same  time  the  mere  social  disadvantages  which  they  bring  to 
the  people,  it  is  probable  that  the  sum  of  the  road  tax  in  this  country  is 
greater  than  that  of  our  ordinary  taxation.  From  some  data  which  I  have 
gathered  in  my  personal  experience  with  roads,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 
even  in  New  England  the  cost  to  the  public  arising  from  ineffective  road- 
ways, as  well  as  from  the  waste  of  money  expended  on  them,  amounts  to  not 
less  than  an  average,  of  ten  dollars  a  year  on  each  household.  In  this 
reckoning  I  have  included  the  loss  of  time  and  of  transporting  power  of 
vehicles,  the  wear  and  tear  of  wagons  and  carriages  and  the  beasts  which 
draw  them.  It  is  probable  that  the  expenditure  in  this  direction  is  greater 
than  that  which  is  incurred  for  schools  or  any  other  single  element  of 
public  interest.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  it  comes  near  the  sum  of  all 
our  State  and  Federal  taxation  together. 

Road-Masters. — It  would  be  greatly  to  the  benefit  of  our  system  of 
road  management  if  men  could  be  thoroughly  well  educated  for  the  duty  of 
road-masters.  A  well-instructed  expert  could  readily  take  charge  of  all  the 
roads  in  an  ordinary  county.  Bringing  to  bear  the  experience  which  has 
been  gained  in  the  art  of  road-making,  he  could  greatly  diminish  the  cost 
of  construction  and  maintenance,  and,  without  any  addition  to  the  present 
expenditure  of  labor,  secure  good  and  permanent  ways.  No  other  step 
seems  so  likely  to  advance  this  element  in  our  policy  so  effectively  as  the 
institution  of  educated  road-masters. 

Clay  Roads. — Clay  roads  can  only  be  made  into  satisfactory  ways  by 
means  of  effective  drainage.  Deep  side  ditches  are  absolutely  necessary 
for  such  roads,  and  the  narrower  the  roadway  the  more  effective  will  be  this 
drainage  work.  It  is  a  great  mistake  in  such  roads  to  have  any  more  width 
than  is  imperatively  necessary  for  the  uses  of  the  structure.  If  the  ditches 
extend  to  a  depth  which  would  maintain  the  crown  of  the  road  two  feet 
above  the  water  level,  and  the  roadway  is  of  the  least  possible  width,  the 
problem  of  protection  against  mud  is  most  easily  solved. 

To  effect  any  satisfactory  solution  of  the  difficulties  which  beset  such 
roads  it  is  necessary,  however,  either  to  construct  an  artificial  surface  of 
timber  or  of  stone,  which  is  always  a  matter  of  great  cost,  or  to  mingle  some 
binding  materials  with  the  clay.  If  gravelly  materials,  or,  what  is  better, 


278  ROADS. 

shingly  waste,  such  as  is  often  produced  by  frost  action  on  slaty  stones,  can 
be  commingled  in  the  proportion  of  one-half  with  the  clay,  a  firm  road-bed 
^an  commonly  be  secured,  provided  the  road  is  well  ditched.  This  com- 
mingled gravel  or  other  solid  substance  must  extend  at  least  for  a  foot 
below  the  surface  in  order  to  withstand  any  heavy  carriages.  In  many 
cases  an  equally  good  result  can  be  accomplished  by  covering  the  surface 
with  repeated  coatings  of  any  shrubby  vegetable  matter.  In  Northern 
Minnesota  I  have  seen  the  material  known  as  "  excelsior" — /.  e.,  strip-like 
shavings,  cut  by  machinery  from  blocks  of  wood,  serve  admirably  to  pre- 
vent the  motion  of  the  clay,  and  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  it  would,  in  clay 
countries  where  stone  cannot  readily  be  obtained,  but  where  timber  is 
plenty,  be  an  admirable  device  to  have  a  machine  for  making  excelsior  to 
be  used  as  a  road  material.  On  the  surface  such  woody  matter  rapidly 
decays,  but  when  worked  by  the  wheels  into  the  clay  it  may  last  for  several 
seasons.  At  no  great  cost  the  material  might  be  saturated  with  creosote, 
and  thus  rendered  much  more  resisting  to  decay.  The  finest  branches  of 
trees,  the  leaves  of  pines,  even  rushes,  may  serve  the  need,  if  they  can  be 
cheaply  applied. 

Sandy  Roads. — In  sandy  countries  the  problem  of  road  maintenance 
is  very  much  simpler  than  it  is  in  the  regions  underlaid  by  clay.  The  aim 
here  should  be  to  have  the  roadway  as  narrow  and  well  defined  as  possi- 
ble. In  most  cases  it  is  desirable  to  have  all  the  vehicles  run  in  the  same 
track,  with  an  abundant  growth  of  vegetation  either  side  of  the  rut,  for  by 
this  means  the  shearing  of  the  sands  is  in  a  great  measure  avoided. 

Macadamized  Roads. — We  come  now  to  the  type  of  roadway  which 
should  be  constructed  wherever  the  culture  and  condition  of  the  country 
permit  the  expenditure  of  a  considerable  amount  of  money  on  its  main  car- 
riageways— a  construction  commonly  known  as  the  turnpike.  The  essen- 
tial feature  of  all  such  ways  consists  in  the  substitution  of  a  compact  mass 
of  stony  matter  in  place  of  one  of  ordinary  soil.  When  properly  built  they 
so  far  spare  the  expenses  of  reconstruction  as  in  many  cases  to  be,  in  the 
long  run,  more  economical  than  clay  roads.  All  macadamized  roads  should 
be  double  ;  on  one  side  covered  with  stone,  on  the  other  having  the  ordin- 
ary foundation  of  the  soil.  If  the  soilway  is  kept  in  fair  repair  it  will  be 
preferred  by  sensible  teamsters  for  more  than  half  the  year  in  all  regions, 
and  in  many  sections  of  the  country  for  more  than  three-fourths  of  the 
time.  In  preparing  such  a  way  care  should  be  taken,  where  possible,  to 
remove  the  whole  of  the  soil  proper  in  order  to  secure  a  foundation  on  the 
subsoil,  which,  having  escaped  in  the  main  the  action  of  frost,  as  well  as 
the  disorganizing  effect  of  roots,  is  firmer  than  the  over  soil.  Founded  on 
hard  pan  or  subsoil,  it  is  commonly  possible  to  make  a  tolerably  permanent 
road  by  placing  upon  the  bed  a  layer  of  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  of 
broken  limestone,  or,  what  is  better,  a  less  thickness  of  broken  shale.  The 
fragments  should,  if  possible,  in  all  cases  be  of  a  somewhat  limy  nature,  for 
in  such  materials  a  process  of  natural  cementation  goes  on  whereby  the 
mass  soon  becomes  very  firm.  If  possible,  the  inter-spaces  should  also  be 
filled  with  powdered  or  finely  broken  limestone,  not  with  sand,  which 
usually  does  not  add  much  to  the  firmness  of  the  way.  Where  the  under- 
lying layer  of  soil  is  not  very  compact,  it  is  in  almost  all  cases  advantage- 
ous to  lay  a  floor  of  flat  stones,  like  a  loose  pavement,  and  upon  this  to 
place  the  true  macadam  or  broken  bits  of  rock  material. 


ROADS.  279 

Laying  out  a  Road. — It  is  hi  the  study  of  the  road  project,  as  regards 
location,  that  we  find  the  greatest  difficulty  in  our  American  system  of  rural 
ways.  My  much  experience  with  this  problem  has  convinced  me  that  an 
educated  road-master  can  do  much  for  our  people  in  bettering  the  placing 
of  our  roadways.  I  have  frequently  to  traverse  a  road  three  miles  in  length 
which  crosses  two  deep  valleys,  the  declivities  making  it  very  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  maintain  the  ways  in  fair  condition.  The  difficulties 
might  have  been  avoided,  and  a  nearly  horizontal  way  secured,  by  a  slight 
deflection  from  the  present  line. 

Vehicles. — The  character  of  the  vehicles  which  are  used  upon  a  road- 
way has  a  great  influence  upon  its  endurance  to  the  beat  of  the  wheels. 
With  the  same  burden  a  two- wheeled  cart  does  far  more  damage  to  the 
road  than  one  of  four  wheels,  and  this  because  of  the  suddenness  in  the 
motion  of  the  wheels  and  their  irregular  twisting  movement  in  the  track- 
way. The  greatest  defect  in  our  American  carriages  is  that  for  a  given 
weight  of  carriage  and  burden  the  tires  of  the  wheels  are  extremely  nar- 
row. It  is  true  that  on  ill-conditioned  and  muddy  roads  a  narrow  wheel- 
tread  is  advantageous  for  the  reason  that  the  thick  mud  has  a  less  extended 
hold  when  it  wraps  around  the  felloes  and  spokes  ;  but  with  this  arrange- 
ment the  interests  of  the  roadway  are  sacrificed  to  the  convenience  of  the 
individual  who  drives  upon  it.  These  narrow  wheels,  with  tires  often  not 
more  than  an  inch  in  diameter,  cut  like  knives  into  the  roadbed  and  so 
deepen  the  ruts.  If  we  could  require  that  no  vehicle  should  have  a  tire 
less  than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  that  all  springless  carriages 
should  have  tires  at  least  two  inches  in  diameter,  increasing  in  width  with 
the  burden,  we  would  secure  our  ways  against  a  considerable  part  of  the 
evils  from  which  they  suffer. 

IMPROVING   COUNTRY    ROADS.* 

The  subject  of  the  improvement  of  county  roads  is  one  which  is 
attracting  wide-spread  attention.  The  fact  exists  that  our  highways  in  the 
rural  districts  are,  as  a  general  rule,  in  an  unsatisfactory  condition,  many  of 
them  being  almost  impassable  without  great  discomfort  during  large  por- 
tions of  the  year,  while  few  are  kept  in  a  proper  state  of  repair.  They  are 
far  inferior  to  those  throughout  England  and  several  other  countries  in 
Europe,  while  the  public  roads  in  the  New  England  States  are  conspicuously 
better  than  ours. 

This  situation  may  have  arisen  because  of  our  vast  expanse  of  territory, 
the  effort  to  maintain  too  many  highways,  the  large  expense  involved  in 
their  proper  care,  inattention  and  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  people,  or 
possibly  from  a  defective  system  of  highway  laws.  Whatever  may  be  the 
real  cause,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  our  highways  are  deteriorating,  and 
that  some  adequate  remedy  should  be  devised.  It  is  apparent  that  they 
are  not  constructed  with  any  special  skill,  little  or  no  engineering  talent 
being  employed,  and  the  matter  of  culverts  and  drainage  being  largely 
overlooked.  It  is  asserted  by  some  that  the  present  system  of  permitting 
each  freeholder  to  "  work  out"  his  road  taxes  operates  badly,  and,  being 
a  relic  of  old  times,  might  be  essentially  modified  with  beneficial  results. 
There  seems  to  beja  lack  of  official  responsibility  and  competent  supervision. 

*xxi,  87.  From  the  annual  message  of  Gov.  David  B.  Hill,  of  New  York,  January 
7,  1890. 


280  ROADS. 

Neither  commissioners  of  highways  nor  pathmasters  are  always  selected  for 
their  especial  fitness  for  the  discharge  of  the  important  duties  involved  in 
the  proper  construction  of  suitable  highways  or  in  their  care  and  mainten- 
ance. In  some  of  the  Western  States  these  duties  devolve  upon  a  county 
civil  engineer,  who  has  entire  charge,  and  whose  functions  are  performed 
for  the  benefit  of  the  whole  county,3  freed  from  local  influences  and 
interests. 

When  highways  are  once  properly  built,  the  inexpensiveness  of  their 
proper  maintenance  is  not  generally  understood  ;  but  the  principal  difficulty 
in  the  past  has  arisen  from  their  originally  defective  construction.  Country 
highways  running  through  a  town  should  not  be  regarded  as  principally  for 
the  benefit  of  that  town.  That  may  be  their  primary  object,  but  they  serve 
a  broader  and  more  comprehensive  purpose  in  affording  means  of  commu- 
nication for  all  the  people,  and  should  be  viewed  as  a  part  of  a  great  gen- 
eral system.  The  burdens  imposed  upon  the  taxpayers  in  the  country  are 
conceded  to  be  onerous  and  various,  and  it  cannot  be  reasonably  expected 
that  they  will  manifest  an  unusual  interest  or  a  large  degree  of  pride  in  the 
maintenance  of  superb  and  expensive  highways  to  an  extent  beyond  the 
actual  needs  of  the  immediate  neighborhood. 

But  the  required  improvement  of  our  highways  should  not  be  consid- 
ered in  any  narrow  or  selfish  spirit,  nor  should  local  interests  alone  be  con- 
sulted. The  interests  of  the  whole  State  are  involved.  The  aspect  of  the 
question  naturally  presents  the  inquiry  whether  the  State  itself  should  not 
take  the  lead  in  the  matter  of  so  pressing  and  desirable  an  improvement. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  the  State  should  proceed  to  construct 
through  every  county  two  highways,  running  in  different  directions,  and 
intersecting  each  other  in  about  the  center  of  the  county,  such  roads  to 
form  a  part  of  a  complete  general  system,  those  in  each  county  to  connect 
with  those  of  adjoining  counties,  and  to  be  known  everywhere  as  State 
roads,  constructed,  cared  for,  and  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  State 
at  large^  under  the  direction  and  supervision  of  the  State  Engineer  and 
Surveyor  or  other  competent  authority  to  be  designated.  This  system  when 
once  completed,  would  enable  a  person  to  start  from  New  York  City,  Albany, 
or  any  other  point,  on  foot  or  in  carriage,  and  visit  every  county  in  the 
State  without  once  leaving  the  State  roads,  thus  insuring  comfort,  conven- 
ience, pleasure  and  speed.  These  roads  should  be  macadamized  or  con~ 
structed  of  crushed  stone  or  other  suitable  material,  with  proper  culverts, 
good  bridges,  adequate  drainage,  watering  troughs,  and  sign  boards,  so  as 
to  compare  favorably  with  the  best  country  roads  in  other  countries  ; 
and  existing  highways  could  be  utilized  for  this  purpose  so  far  as  feasible. 

EDUCATION    IN    ROAD-MAKING.* 

ELIZABETH,  N.  J.,  January  16,  1889. 

SIR  :  You  have  in  past  volumes  discussed  quite  fully  the  subject  of 
road -making.  Now  that  the  matter  of  better  roads  is  being  agitated  in  a 
number  of  localities,  and  there  is  a  probability  of  radical  changes  in  the 
road  laws  of  some  of  the  States,  it  would  seem  that  a  presentation  in  your 
columns  of  such  information  as  you  can  gather  as  to  the  latest  enactments 
of  the  several  States  might  be  of  great  value  to  the  public. 

F.    COLLINGWOOD. 

xix,  114. 


ROADS.  28l 

We  thank  Mr.  Collingwood  for  his  suggestion.  It  is,  as  he 
says,  in  line  of  what  we  have  done  much  of  in  the  past  and  shall  do 
even  more  in  the  future,  as  there  is  nothing  more  important,  from 
an  engineering  point  of  view,  to  the  comfort  and  commerce  of  a 
country  than  good  highways.  We  are  glad  to  see  that  more  interest 
is  being  taken  in  this  matter.  At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  of  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  in  discussing  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mittee to  adopt  means  for  the  improvement  of  country  roads,  Mr. 
Collingwood  said  : 

What  the  country  needs  is  education  in  road-making.  The  amount  of 
waste  by  reason  of  bad  roads  is  enormous.  We  can't  carry  the  loads  we 
ought  to.  If  with  good  roads  we  can  carry  twice  the  loads  we  can  on  poor 
ones  then  they  save  half  the  labor  of  hauling. 

In  the  far  West,  twenty  years  ago,  first-class  roads  were  built  in  many 
troublesome  places  as  a  measure  of  true  economy,  while  here,  ten  miles 
from  New  York,  we  have  roads  so  horrible  that  teams  are  hardly  able  to 
haul  empty  wagons  over  them. 

He  pointed  out  also  the  cause  of  the  evil  and  its  remedy,  saying 
that  not  one  in  ten  thousand  of  the  roadmasters  knew  how  to  build 
good  roads,  and  that  the  whole  work  should  be  done  under  the 
direction  of  competent  engineers. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  question  of  one  organization  and  control 
of  the  road-making  force  is  primary  and  fundamental,  and  that  until 
we  have  a  system  of  administration  for  our  highways  equal  to, 
though  not  necessarily  the  same  as  that  of  France,  we  cannot  expect 
to  have  as  good  roads  as  the  French  rejoice  in.  It  is  then  at  present 
more  a  matter  of  legislation  than  of  specifications,  and  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  our  law-makers  may  see  its  importance  in  season. 
Meetings  of  citizens,  such  as_that  held  in  Elizabeth,  may  do  much 
to  clarify  the  legislative  vision. 

COLLINGWOOD    ON    ROAD-MAKING.* 

The  following  letter  addressed  by  F.  Collingwood  to  the  Eliza- 
beth, (N.  J.)  Daily  Journal  refers  to  the  meeting  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  of  that  city  to  consider  the  improvement  of  the  county  roads, 
to  which  brief  reference  was  made  in  our  last  issue.  Mr.  Colling- 
wood has  given  special  attention  to  the  subject  of  road-making,  and 
his  letter  can  be  read  with  profit  by  any  one  who  has  to  do  with 
such  work. 

ELIZABETH,  N.  J.,  January  17,  1889. 

MR.  EDITOR  :  My  purely  chance  attendance  at  the  meeting  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  seems  to  have  given  me  a  notoriety  that  I  do  not  covet.  I  cannot, 
however,  pass  by  a  statement  made  mention  of  by  you  without  explaining 

*xix,  120. 


282  ROADS. 

myself  a  little  more  fully.     I  refer  to  the  idea  held  by  not  a  few  that  a  thin 
covering  of  say  three  inches  of  road  metal  (broken  stone)  will  make  a  road. 

The  philosophy  of  road  making  is  very  simple,  and  is  identically  of  the 
same  character  as  the  obtaining  of  a  suitable  foundation  for  a  building.  A 
tyro  in  engineering  soon  learns  that  if  he  would  found  on  a  yielding  soil,  he 
must  spread  the  base  of  his  foundation  if  he  would  prevent  immoderat6 
settlement,  and  the  softer  the  earth  strata,  the  wider  or  larger  must  be  the 
base. 

Now  in  the  case  of  a  wagon  wheel  on  a  roadbed  saturated  with  water, 
the  material  directly  under  the  wheel  is  both  compressed  and  moved  to  one 
side  and  the  wheel  sinks  until  the  resistance  beneath  is  equal  to  the  load 
upon  it. 

If  we  place  a  comparatively  unyielding  mass  (such  as  macadam  stone) 
of  sufficient  thickness  and  sufficiently  large  area,  upon  this  surface,  side 
movement  will  be  prevented  and  the  compression  reduced  practically  to 
zero.  The  pressure  from  the  wheel  will  be  transmitted  to  the  soil  through 
a  cone  of  the  underlying  mass,  which  will  have  its  apex  at  the  wheel,  and 
its  base  at  the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  diameter  of  the  base  of  the  cone  will 
increase  as  the  depth  increases,  but  the  area  of  the  base,  which  is  the  import- 
ant element  in  its  bearing  power,  will  increase  in  proportion  to  this  depth 
multiplied  by  itself,  or  as  mathematicians  say,  "as  the  square  of  the  depth.'' 
If  then  the  base  for  one  inch  of  depth  would  bear  some  given  load,  three 
inches  of  depth  would  bear  nine  times  as  much;  nine  inches  of  depth  would 
bear  eighty-one  times,  and  twelve  inches  one  hundred  and  forty-four  times 
as  much.  The  facts  shown  by  experience  are  that  while  three  inches  depth 
would  last  during  good  weather,  it  will  cut  through  when  a  heavily  loaded 
wagon  passes  after  rain  of  any  magnitude,  and  the  road  will  soon  be  full  of 
deep  ruts. 

The  latest  practice  among  engineers  recognizes  the  fact  that  well- 
drained  roads  of  sharp  descent  which  can  hardly  get  much  softened  by 
water,  do  not  need  as  thick  covering  as  flat  roads  from  which  the  water  does 
not  flow  so  quickly.  The  thinnest  covering  I  have  ever  heard  mentioned, 
however,  was  six  inches,  and  that  not  on  roads  having  very  heavy  traffic. 
For  country  macadam  roads  the  limits  would  be  between  six  inches  and 
twelve  inches,  but  the  judgment  of  the  engineer  is  needed  to  decide  each 
case.  For  cities,  where  the  loads  are  heavy,  even  more  is  desirable. 

The  explanation  made  above  shows  at  once  one  other  fact — viz. :  in  order 
that  the  road  covering  may  act  as  described,  there  must  be  a  proper  bond- 
ing and  interlocking  of  the  various  layers  of  stone,  which  can  only  be  secured 
by  careful  work,  under  intelligent  and  competent  inspection.  A  large  stone 
in  the  base  of  the  pavement  furnishes  a  smooth  surface  on  its  top  for  the 
covering  stone  to  slide  upon,  and  will  be  the  first  place  to  invite  a  break  in 
the  surface.  There  are  such  to  be  seen  near  our  own  doors. 

I  have  said  nothing  about  the  very  important  matters  of  drainage,  or 
rolling,  which  are  also  essentials. 

Before  such  work  is  contracted  for  all  matters  of  drainage,  grades,  etc., 
should  be  arranged  for  and  full  and  explicit  specification  prepared  by  a  com- 
petent engineer,  and  the  work  must  be  watched  through  all  its  stages  to  see 
that  the  specifications  are  carried  out. 

I  think  we  shall  go  to  a  useless  expense,  if  the  work  to  be  done  is  left  to 
the  unscientific  methods  which  have  prevailed  for  the  last  hundred  years. 
This  should  be  provided  against  in  the  laws  that  it  is  proposed  to  ask  for, 

F.    COLLINGWOOD. 


ROADS.  283 

ROAD    SAVING— VEHICLES    AND    TRACTION.* 

SYRACUSE,  N.  Y.,  January  31,  1889. 

SIR  :  In  your  issue  of  January  26  I  note  "  Road  Making,"  by  F.  Col- 
lingwood.  Allow  me  to  make  a  suggestion  as  to  road  saving.  Have  the 
State  pass  a  law  making  it  imperative  on  all  two-horse  farm  wagons,  and 
all  others  that  carry  over  one  ton,  to  use  4-inch  width  of  tires,  and  to  have 
the  hind  wheels  set  eight  inches  further  apart  than  the  forward  ones,  and 
that  all  carriages  also  shall  have  the  hind  wheels  the  width  of  their  tires 
further  apart  than  the  forward  ones.  With  this  law  in  force  road  making 
will  be  reduced  66  per  cent.  When  wagons  are  thus  made  they  will  not 
track  and  you  have  no  ruts.  No  one  ever  saw  ruts  around  the  corners  of 
any  country  road.  Each  wheel  rolls  down  and  does  not  cut  the  road  ;  and 
it  is  absolutely  untrue  that  the  wagon  draws  harder  ;  it  is  absolutely  true 
that  it  draws  easier.  W.  A.  SWEET. 

WASTEFUL    ROAD    MAKING.f 

The  Minneapolis  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  held  a  meeting  on 
March  6,  at  which  George  E.  Crary  read  a  paper  on  "  Permanent 
Improvements  on  Highways."  He  made  the  point  that  $800,000 
was  being  practically  thrown  away  every  year  in  the  State  by  the 
present  method  of  road -making.  He  would  have  the  State  por- 
tioned into  three  or  five  districts,  with  a  competent  superintendent 
in  charge  of  each,  and  responsible  for  the  condition  of  the  roads 
under  his  jurisdiction. 

CLASSIFICATION    AND    MAINTENANCE    OF    ROADS,  f 

The  Engineers'  Society  of  Western  Pennsylvania,  at  its  last 
meeting  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  adopted  the  report  of  the  Committee  on 
Improvement  of  the  Country  Roads.  It  calls  for  a  division  of  the 
roads  of  the  State  into  highways,  roads  and  lanes,  defining  highways 
as  what  are  commonly  called  county  roads,  leading  entirely  through 
the  county,  or  from  one  important  centre  to  another  ;  roads,  as  what 
are  now  commonly  called  township  roads.  Lanes  were  defined  as 
private  roads,  leading  only  to  small  hamlets  or  private  properties. 
The  draft  of  the  law  to  be  submitted  to  the  Pennsylvania  State 
Legislature  provides  for  road  commissioners  who  shall  appoint' 
county  engineers  to  have  charge  and  control  of  the  improvement  of 
the  county  roads,  in  shortening  distances,  lowering  grades  and  fur- 
nishing a  good  road  surface.  The  committee  was  instructed  to  use 
every  means  to  have  this  bill  adopted  by  the  State  Legislature.  A 
full  report  was  read  upon  the  advantages  of  good  country  roads  to 
the  community  in  general. 

*  xix,  134.      f  xix,  207.     J  xix,  236. 


284  ROADS. 

ROAD    IMPROVEMENT    IN    THE    SOUTH.* 

Interest  in  the  improvement  of  the  country's  roads  is  not  con- 
fined to  any  one  section  of  the  country.  Bradstreefs  says  : 

We  have  seen  what  attention  the  subject  has  attracted  in  the  North 
and  East ;  it  is  apparently  attracting  no  less  attention  in  the  South.  For 
example,  a  proposition  to  hold  a  congress  to  consider  the  best  means  for 
improving  the  roads  of  the  State  has  been  brought  forward  in  Georgia, 
and,  judging  from  the  comments  of  the  State  press,  the  proposal  is  being 
favorably  received.  The  congress  will  be  held  in  Atlanta  in  May  next,  and 
it  is  hoped  that  a  practical  scheme  of  reform  in  road  administration  will  be 
adopted.  The  question  is  one  which  addresses  itself  with  peculiar  force 
to  the  commercial  and  agricultural  interests  of  the  country.  The  merchant 
and  the  agriculturist  alike  find  their  account  in  a  ready  exchange  of  pro- 
ducts, an  easy  marketing  of  crops,  and  it  need  not  be  said  that  such  a 
desirable  consummation  may  be  very  much  retarded  by  bad  roads.  It  is 
plain,  from  indications  such  as  that  to  which  attention  has  just  been 
directed,  that  interest  in  the  question  of  road  improvement  has  by  no 
means  culminated  yet. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    GRAVEL    ROADWAY,  f 

The  specifications  for  a  gravel  roadway  from  which  the  follow- 
ing extract  is  made,  were  prepared  by  Dr.  D.  W.  Mead,  City 
Engineer  of  Rockford,  111.,  who  finds  that  a  gravel  roadway  gives 
much  better  satisfaction  in  that  town  than  macadam  made  with  the 
local  stone. 

A  half  mile  improved  two  years  ago  under  these  specifications 
he  reports  has  given  good  results. 

Extracts  from  specifications  : 

"  The  streets  shall  be  excavated  or  filled  by  the  city  to  the  grade  given 
by  the  City  Engineer,  and  the  surface  prepared  by  said  city  for  receiving  the 
rubble. 

"  On  the  surface  so  prepared  a  layer  of  large-sized  rubble  shall  be 
thrown.  This  course  shall  be  arranged  in  a  close  and  compact  form,  and 
the  interstices  of  the  larger  stones  shall  be  filled  in  with  sound  stone  chip- 
pings,  all  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Commissioner  of  Streets.  The  stones 
for  the  foundation  course  shall  be  generally  not  less  than  five  inches  in 
any  dimension. 

"Over  the  foundation  course  a  layer  of  rubble  broken  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  a  cubical  form,  not  less  than  one  and  one-fourth  inches,  nor 
more  than  two  and  one-half  inches  in  any  dimension  shall  be  placed.  The 
rubble  shall  *  *  *  *  be  well  compacted  and  rolled  with  the  city  roller, 
to  the  satisfaction  of  said  Commissioner  of  Streets. 

' '  Over  the  rubble  a  layer  of  screened  gravel  mixed  with  clay  shall  be 
placed.  The  layer  shall  be  when  finished  at  least  two  inches  in  thickness 
at  the  center  and  one  inch  in  thickness  at  the  side.  This  layer  shall  be 
well  rolled  and  compacted  with  the  street-roller  to  the  satisfaction  of  said 
Commissioners. 

"  Both  before  and  while  rolling  the  rubble  and  gravel  layers  said  layers 
shall  be  flooded  or  sprinkled." 

*xix,  184.     f  xviii,  321. 


ROADS.  285 

ROAD    LEGISLATION.* 

The  necessity  for  better  roads  in  America  has  been  many  times 
shown  in  these  columns,  and  a  welcome  addition  to  the  literature  of 
the  subject  comes  in  a  carefully  prepared  paper  by  Professor  Jere- 
miah W.  Jenks,  of  Knox  College,  Galesburg,  111.,  upon  road  legisla- 
tion, published  as  a  tract  by  the  American  Economic  Association. 
The  author's  personal  observation  has  been  in  a  field  where  the 
need  of  reform  is  especially  great,  for  the  soil  of  the  West  is  at  once 
generally  far  from  being  the  best  for  roads  and  yet  calculated  to 
produce  such  crops  of  grain  that  good  highways  are  very  important. 
The  advantages  of  proper  laying  out  by  engineers  and  better  con- 
struction, such  as  might  be  provided  for  by  law,  are  urged  in  detail, 
and  some  estimates  of  the  money  advantage  to  be  gained  can  hardly 
fail  to  surprise  those  who  have  given  the  subject  no  particular 
thought.  Thus,  it  is  suggested  that  proper  roads  would  increase 
the  value  of  two-thirds  of  the  good  farms  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
$10  an  acre,  and  that,  by  an  estimate  which  no  well-informed  man 
would  question,  the  State  of  Illinois  alone  would  gain  no  less  than 
$160,000,000. 

Some  interesting  suggestions  as  to  what  should  be  sought  by 
laws  are  given,  but  the  chief  value  of  the  paper  will  perhaps  be  found 
in  an  elaborate  compilation  of  laws  as  they  now  are.  The  French 
system  is  explained  in  detail,  and  those  of  some  other  European 
countries  briefly,  and  then  the  laws  of  each  of  the  States  are  given 
in  tabular  form,  so  that  a  comparison  may  be  made  at  a  glance.  It 
is  enough  to  say  that  since  hap-hazard  road-making,  regardless  of 
economical  or  scientific  methods,  is  so  general  in  this  country,  it  is 
also  true  that  the  laws  make  no  intelligent  provision  for  anything 
better.  Back  of  inadequacy  of  the  law  is,  of  course,  general  igno 
ranee  of  the  subject,  and  we  are  glad  to  see  leading  popular  periodi- 
cals begin  work  toward  dispelling  this.  An  article  in  Harpers 
Weekly,  by  Captain  F.  V.  Green,  has  already  been  referred  to  in 
these  columns,  and  later  there  has  appeared  in  Scribners  Magazine 
a  paper  by  N.  S.  Shaler,  which  clearly  indicates  the  wastefulness  of 
the  present  method,  and  makes  some  plain  and  simple  suggestions 
for  reform. 

GOOD    ROADS,    THEIR    ECONOMIC    VALUE    AND    HOW  TO  MAKE  THEM.f 

It  is  an  injury  amounting  to  a  calamity  to  the  farmers — the 
impassable  state  of  the  country  roads  after  a  day's  heavy  rain.  It  is 
then,  when  his  fields  are  too  wet  to  work  in,  that  the  farmer  can, 
without  inconvenience,  bring  his  produce  to  market.  But,  unfor- 


*Ed.  xx,  297.  *f  xx,  187.  ByJ.  F.  Pope,  C.  E.,  in  the 


286  ROADS. 

tunately,  the  same  rain-fall  that  prevents  work  in  the  fields,  equally, 
from  its  effect  on  the  roads,  precludes  his  access  to  market,  as  the 
hauling  of  even  an  empty  wagon  is  then  a  wearisome  labor  to  driver 
and  team.  The  farmer  must,  therefore,  perforce  sit  idle,  unable  either 
to  cultivate  his  land  or  market  his  produce  ;  the  latter,  perhaps,  spoil- 
ing on  his  farm,  instead  of  being  profitably  sold  to  his  city 
customers.  At  length,  when  a  few  days  of  fine  weather  has  dried 
his  land,  and  rendered  the  space  between  two  fences  called  a 
country  road  passable,  he  has  to  determine  which  is  to  him  the 
least  harmful,  to  neglect  his  land  or  his  marketing.  For,  it  is  just 
when  his  time  should  be  divided  between  plowing  his  land  and 
marketing  his  produce  that  the  greatest  and  most  frequent  rain-falls 
occur  ;  and  while  he  is  grateful  to  Providence  for  the  beneficial 
showers  that  enrich  and  invigorate  his  land,  he  must  think  with 
bitterness  of  the  laws  and  administration  that,  by  its  negligence  or 
inaction,  deprives  him  so  unjustly  of  the  use  he  could  then  make  of 
his  time  in  the  profitable  sale  of  his  produce.  While  the  impassable 
state  of  the  country  roads  is  a  calamity  to  the  farmer,  it  is  also  a 
serious  injury  to  the  residents  of  the  cities,  as,  instead  of  getting 
their  daily  supply  of  vegetables  and  farm  produce  from  the  local 
farmers  and  market  gardeners,  they  have  to  depend  on  importation 
from  other  States  to  supplement  the  deficiency  due  to  the  impassable 
state  of  the  country  roads  ;  and  for  these  imported  articles  they 
must  necessarily  pay  a  higher  rate  to  cover  the  extra  cost  and  risk 
of  transportation.  This  in  a  great  measure  accounts  for  the  vast 
importation  of  country  produce  into  the  city  from  other  States. 
The  grocer,  or  city  purveyor  of  these  articles,  must  always  have  a 
supply  on  hand  to  meet  the  demands  of  his  customers,  and  when, 
from  whatever  cause,  he  cannot  depend  on  the  regularity  of  the 
local  supply,  he  must  otherwise  arrange,  at  even  an  enhanced  cost, 
to  meet  the  daily  demand.  He  must,  therefore,  keep  up  his  outer 
State  trade  connection,  even  when  it  would  be  to  his  temporary 
advantage  to  purchase  from  the  local  producers.  Thus,  while  all 
farm  and  garden  products  are  at  an  extravagant  price  in  the  stores, 
the  local  farmers  and  market  gardeners  cannot  always  get  sale  for 
their  produce.  The  money  that  should  circulate  locally  to  the 
advantage  of  the  general  community  is  remitted  to  benefit  the 
citizens  of  other  States.  Thus,  the  interests  of  both  the  urban  and 
rural  population  of  the  country  are  seriously  affected  by  the  want  of 
means  of  communication  between  town  and  country.  In  fine,  it  is 
a  lamentable  state  of  governmental  administration  when  a  day's 
rain  paralyzes  the  internal  trade  of  a  State  and  obliges  the  citizens 
of  an  agricultural  country  to  depend  for  their  food  supplies  to 
importation  from  other  States.  But,  even  under  the  most  advanta- 


ROADS.  287 

geous  conditions  of  the  weather,  the  farmer  is  still  seriously  injured 
by  the  rough,  crude  state  of  the  country  roads,  badly  aligned,  badly 
graded,  and  full  of  holes  and  ruts.  Thus,  in  bad  weather  the 
farmer  is  virtually  cut  off  from  town,  and  in  good  weather,  from  the 
faulty  construction  and  ill-kept  conditions  of  the  roads,  the  value  of 
his  time  and  team  are  reduced  one-half,  as  on  a  hard,  smooth  surface 
his  team  will  draw  a  greater  load  in  less  time  than  on  the  ordinary 
ill-constructed  country  road.  Moreover,  not  only  is  the  power  of 
his  team  decreased,  but  there  is  also  the  great  loss  by  wear  and  tear 
on  his  harness  and  wagon,  due  to  the  plunging  and  jerking  through 
the  holes  and  ruts.  Again,  there  is,  as  a  rule,  no  well  devised  plan 
or  order  in  the  administration  of  the  road  fund  and  the  construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  the  county  roads.  By  fits  and  starts,  with- 
out system  or  method,  attempts  are  made  at  repairs  and  improve- 
ments, and  the  money  is  then  lavishly  and  unintelligently  expended. 
The  work  is  entrusted  to  an  amateur,  or  theorist,  who  has  as  much 
practical  knowledge  of  road-making  as  he  has  of  anything  else  of 
which  he  is  ignorant,  and,  more  frequently  than  not,  a  few  months 
after  such  expenditure  the  state  of  that  improved  road  resembles  the 
state  of  the  relapsed  sinner.  These  remarks  apply  generally  to  road 
management  throughout  the  State.  It  should  be  more  generally 
known  that  there  is  as  much  science  required  in  road-making  as  in 
any  other  engineering  work. 

Macadam  Roads  in  India, — The  most  perfect  system  of  road- 
making  in  the  world,  perfect  not  only  in  the  excellent  condition  of 
the  roads,  but  also  in  the  economy  of  their  construction,  is  that  on 
which,  with  other  engineering  works,  I  was  engaged  during  my 
sixteen  years'  service  under  the  government  of  British  India.  The 
making  of  cheap  and  efficient  roads  is  as  familiar  to  me  as  plowing 
to  an  old  farmer.  I  have  during  my  sixteen  years'  service  either 
constructed  or  kept  in  repair,  taking  one  year  with  another,  over 
1,000  miles  of  macadamized  roads.  The  system  and  method  in 
vogue  there  is  the  result  of  the  experience  of  nearly  100  years ;  and 
as  there  have  been  of  late  so  many  amateur  and  theoretical  sugges- 
tions regarding  the  construction  of  roads  I  will,  as  briefly  as  possible, 
describe  the  cheap  and  efficient  method  of  road-making  in  India, 
which  is  equally  applicable  to  Texas,  as  there  is  as  much  variety  of 
soil  in  the  former  country  as  in  the  latter. 

Alignment. — Having  determined  the  points  or  places  to  be  con- 
nected by  a  road,  the  country  along  the  proposed  route  is  recon- 
noitered  and  the  road  then  aligned.  Great  discernment  is  necessary 
in  this  alignment,  so  as  to  combine  directness  of  route  with  the 
avoidance  of  swamps,  hills,  etc.,  or  where  these  have  to  be  crossed 
to  do  so  as  advantageously  as  circumstances  will  permit,  and  to 


288  ROADS. 

secure  a  firm  road-bed  and  easy  gradients.  There  is  not  much  to 
be  said  on  this  head  with  reference  to  the  Texas  county  roads. 
Unfortunately  these  were  aligned  in  the  manner  I  have  described, 
and  while,  for  obvious  reasons,  it  would  be  hardly  practicable  to 
re-align  all  the  county  roads,  still  great  improvement  might  be 
effected  by  a  slight  deviation  here  and  there  to  shorten  a  line,  avoid 
a  bad  crossing  of  a  creek,  a  hill,  a  swamp,  or  a  stretch  of  deep  sandy 
soil.  The  alignment  being  made,  the  first  requisite  of  a  good  road 
is  efficient  drainage. 

Drainage. — Drainage  does  not  consist  in  digging  ditches  four 
to  six  feet  deep  along  a  road.  A  scientific  scratch  in  the  proper 
place  may  be  more  effectual  than  a  ditch  four  feet  deep  run  by  the 
eye  of  an  amateur  road-maker.  I  will  again  repeat  that  the  first 
and  absolutely  necessary  requirement  of  a  good  road  is  efficient 
drainage.  The  road  must  not  be  allowed  to  get  sodden  with  water. 
Fortunately,  drainage  costs  but  little  when  devised  by  a  competent 
engineer.  As  a  rule,  proper  drainage  can  be  effected  by  trenches, 
the  earth  from  which  would  just  suffice  to  raise  the  roadbed  from  six 
inches  to  a  foot. 

Width  of  Road. — The  land  taken  up  for  a  county  road  should 
not  be  less  than  60  feet  in  width,  to  allow  for  drainage,  trenches, 
etc.,  and  the  width  of  the  made  roadway  should  be  26  feet,  raised  not 
less  than  6  inches  above  the  ground.  This  26  feet  should  be  made 
up  as  follows :  Eighteen  feet  of  a  hard  central  surface,  metaled  with 
broken  stone  or  gravel,  with  4  feet  of  an  unmetaled  earthen  berm  on 
each  side  of  the  hard  macadamized  central  surface.  The  side  slopes 
of  embanked  roads  to  be,  as  a  general  rule,  ij  feet  horizontal  to  i 
foot  vertical;  in  cuttings  the  slopes  to  be  according  to  the  tenacity  or 
hardness  of  the  material  cut  through,  varying  from  i£  to  i  in  ordi- 
nary soil  to  almost  a  perpendicular  rock.  The  width  of  roadway 
given  above — 18  feet  and  4  feet  side  berm — is  wide  enough  for  all 
practicable  purposes.  More  than  this  is  a  mere  waste  of  money.  A  5 
roadway  of  greater  width  may  be  necessary  in  Bourbon  County  ^ 
Ky.,  but  not  in  sober,  temperance-loving  Texas.  It  would  be  better 
to  expend  the  extra  money  in  keeping  the  width  I  mention  in  good 
repair,  than  to  waste  it  on  an  unnecessary  width  of  25  or  more  feet. 
I  write  from  the  experience  of  the  commerce  of  a  country  having  a 
population  to  the  square  mile  sixteen  times  that  of  Texas,  and  where 
the  Government  deems  it  as  much  a  part  of  its  duty  to  aid  and  facilitate 
the  internal  commerce  of  the  country  by  good  roads,  as  it  deems  it 
a  part  of  its  functions  to  protect  the  personal  rights  and  property 
of  its  citizens  by  the  just  administration  of  law  and  justice. 

Material. — As  I  have  said,  the  width  of  the  macadamized  or 
prepared  hard  surface  of  the  road  should  be  18  feet,  metaled  with 


ROADS.  289 

either  broken  stone  or  gravel,  according  to  the  local  supply.  If  of 
broken  stone,  it  should  be  the  hardest  rock  locally  procurable, 
broken  to  pass  through  an  inch  and  a-half  diameter  ring.  The 
thickness  of  the  layer  of  broken  stone  or  gravel  should  be,  as  a 
general  rule,  4^  inches  at  the  edges,  and  6\  inches  at  the  centre.* 
If  the  material  used  be  broken  stone,  it  must  be  laid  in  one  layer 
but  if  of  gravel,  it  must  be  laid  in  two  layers,  the  first  layer  being 
partly  consolidated  before  the  second  is  laid  on,  the  consolidation  to 
be  effected  by  iron  rollers  drawn  by  horses. 

Rollers. — In  exceptional  cases  steam  rollers  might  be  used,  but 
they  would  not  be  economical  away  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a 
city;  the  iron  rollers  to  be  6 \  feet  long,  weighing  3  tons,  and  so  con- 
structed as  to  weigh  nearly  double  that  weight  when  filled  with 
earth  ;  the  consolidation  to  be  in  part  done  by  the  unfilled  roller, 
and  completed  by  it  when  filled.  The  surface  of  the  completed  road 
should  have  a  camber  from  the  centre  to  the  sides  of  i  inch  in  4^ 
feet.f  There  is  no  necessity  whatever  for  the  three  layers  of  6  inches 
each  of  flat  rock,  crushed  stone  and  gravel  mentioned  in  the  issue 
of  the  Statesman  of  January  i. 

Cost. — The  cost  of  such  three-layer  construction  is  there  said  to  be 
$2,640  per  mile.  No  contractor  in  the  State  would  undertake  such 
work  under  $9,000  per  mile.  The  cost  is  an  easy  calculation,  and  I 
have  made  it  with  the  result  that  it  would  not  be  under  $9,000. 
However,  no  such  expensive  construction  is  necessary.  My  appeal 
is  to  the  thousands  and  thousands  of  miles  of  the  finest  country 
roads  in  the  world  constructed  as  I  have  described.  The  average 
cost  of  such  road  would  be  $2,100  per  mile,  a  minimum  of  $1,600 
and  maximum  $2,600.  It  is,  however,  not  enough  to  construct  a. 
road  well  in  the  first  instance ;  it  is  also  necessary  to  keep  it  in 
repair.  The  repairs  will,  of  course,  vary  with  the  amount  of  traffic. 
The  cost  per  mile  per  annum  will  vary  from  $100  for  the  more 
remote  to  as  much  as  $300  for  the  last  couple  of  miles  leading  into 
the  city.  The  partial  renewal  of  the  surface  will  also  be  necessary 
every  four  or  five  years. 

*  These  thicknesses  of  4^  to  6£  inches  would  be  permissible  only  on 
very  firm,  or,  at  least,  fairly  hard  ground.  On  ordinary  ground,  especially 
when  softened  by  a  thaw  after  frost,  a  thickness  of  not  less  than  9  inches 
would  be  required  to  prevent  cutting  through  by  the  wheels  of  heavily 
loaded  vehicles. — ED.  RECORD. 

f  This  gives  a  rise  of  but  2  inches  in  the  centre,  which  might  be  suffi- 
cient as  a  final  condition  on  exceptionally  good  ground  after  all  settlement 
was  over.  In  ordinary  conditions  the  rise  should  not  be  less  than  6  inches 
at  first  and  more  if  the  ground  underneath  is  at  all  soft.  Less  than  this  will 
allow  water  to  lie  in  the  centre  after  a  very  little  wear,  which  is  detrimen- 
tal to  durability,  and  often  causes  considerable  mud  to  collect. — ED.  RECORD. 


290  ROADS. 

MACADAM    AND    GRAVEL    ROADS    IN    CHELSEA,  MASS.* 

From  the  annual  report  of  the  City  Engineer,  Mr.  William  E. 
McClintock,  ot  Chelsea,  for  the  past  year,  we  gather  some  interesting 
items.  The  street  pavement  that  seems  to  have  been  decided  upon 
is  macadam,  but  the  stone  in  the  neighborhood  is  a  rotten  schisty 
slate,  and  unfit  for  the  surface.  A  crusher  has  therefore  been  fitted 
up,  with  a  specially  designed  elevator,  by  which  the  crushed  stone 
is  raised  about  15  feet  for  screening,  thus  saving  considerable 
manual  labor  and  cheapening  the  process.  The  present  cost  is 
about  $1.50  a  cubic  yard  and  50  cents  for  hauling.  To  obtain  a 
suitable  rock  from  Maiden,  consisting  of  trap,  porphyry,  etc.,  will 
cost  about  $1.25  additional,  or  $3.25  per  yard,  aside  for  payment 
for  the  quarry.  He  recommends  the  soft  material  for  foundation 
and  the  imported  material  for  metaling. 

Gravel  has  been  used,  but  he  says  of  it :  "  We  have  to  let  it  be 
worn  down  by  team  travel,  which  may  be  an  economy  to  the  city, 
but  is  a  great  loss  in  wear  and  tear  to  the  traveling  public,  both 
mentally  and  morally.  This  gravel  is  unsurpassed  for  paving  pur- 
poses, but  for  street  purposes  it  is  as  well  to  use  beans"  In  respect 
to  repairs  of  streets,  he  says  the  cost  is  variously  estimated  in  other 
cities  at  from  3  cents  to  25  cents  per  square  yard  per  year,  and  it  is 
bound  to  cost  as  much  in  Chelsea  as  elsewhere,  the  lower  limit  being 
the  least  at  which  he  would  place  it  for  the  very  least  repairs  that 
should  be  made,  or  a  cost  for  the  city  of  $35,000  annually,  and 
$7,000  was  the  amount  actually  spent.  Sweepings  to  the  amount  of 
1,168  loads  were  removed  from  the  streets  during  the  year. 

THE    BRIDGEPORT    MACADAM    ROADS. A    GOSPEL    OF    THINNESS.f 

Two  systems  of  making  roads  of  broken  stone  have  for  some 
time  been  employed.  The  first,  practiced  by  Macadam,  calls  for  a 
light  coating  of  stone  broken  to  a  uniform  size,  on  a  substratum  of 
good  earth.  The  second,  introduced  by  Telford,  calls  for  a  founda- 
tion of  hand-placed  and  packed  stones,  over  which  the  broken  stone 
or  road  metal,  is  spread  and  compacted  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
case  of  macadam. 

Unfortunately  for  that  portion  of  our  people  interested,  in  other 
modes  of  circulation  than  those  afforded  by  our  railroads,  the  able 
engineers  who  projected  and  built  the  roads  in  the  Central  Park,  of 
New  York  City,  had  not,  as  a  general  principle,  been  in  charge  of 
wagon  roads,  and  so  turned  to  books  of  information.  To  a  mathe- 
matical mind,  nothing  could  be  clearer  than  the  proposition  that  the 
road  metal  transmits  the  pressure  of  the  wheels  to  an  area  propor- 

*  xv,  545.     f  xxi,  53.    By  Edward  P.  North. 


ROADS.  291 

tional  to  the  square  of  its  depth.  From  this  the  other  contention  of 
Telford  follows,  naturally,  that  the  desired  depth  could  be  obtained 
economically  and  advantageously  by  the  Telford  foundation. 

The  result  of  the  study  of  authorities  was,  that  Central  Park 
has  roads  of  indefinite  thickness,  reposing  on  a  bed  of  thoroughly 
well-drained  earth,  at  a  cost  that  is  prohibitory  to  any  great  exten- 
sion of  such  roads.  But  they  are  built  according  to  authority,  and 
they  have  been  and  still  are  standards  for  construction,  as  they  are 
well  maintained.  Authorities,  however,  are  reputed  to  be  often 
wrong,  as  was  exemplified  on  Fifth  Avenue,  where  an  equally  well- 
built  Telford  road,  in  lack  of  maintenance,  was  for  some  years  a 
nuisance  to  those  who  rode  on  it  and  a  terror  to  those  who  lived  by 
it,  and  many,  if  not  most,  of  the  engineers  trained  in  the  school  of 
the  Central  Park  roads,  show  by  their  practice  a  growing  belief 
that  a  cheaper  road  is,  on  the  whole,  better. 

Possibly  no  more  radical  departure  from  the  teachings  of  Telford 
has  anywhere  been  made  than  by  Mr.  B.  D.  Pierce,  the  Street  Com- 
missioner of  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  who  was  at  one  time  a  foreman  on 
the  construction  of  the  Central  Park  roads.  When  he  took  charge 
of  the  streets  and  roads  of  that  city  they  were  notoriously  bad, 
excepting  a  little  pavement,  and  some  Telford  road  laid  down  at  an 
expense  of  about  $1.50  per  square  yard.  Mr.  Pierce  started  with 
the  intention  of  building  4-inch  macadam  roads  ;  an  intention 
adhered  to  except  in  two  instances  to  be  mentioned  hereafter,  and 
last  March  he  had  over  45  miles  of  good  macadam  roads  from  18  to 
20  feet  wide.  Of  this,  38.9  miles  had  cost,  including  some  grading 
with  the  maintenance  and  repairs  following  extensive  renewals  of 
an  old  water-pipe  service,  $115,297.25,  or  only  56^^  cents  per  lineal 
foot. 

During  the  present  season  somewhat  over  5  miles  more  road 
have  been  constructed  in  Bridgeport,  and  the  example  of  cheap  and 
good  roads  has  spread  into  neighboring  towns,  so  that  in  addition 
to  the  60  odd  miles  of  good  roads  in  Bridgeport  there  are  about 
14  miles  of  equally  good  roads  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  making 
between  70  and  80  miles  on  which  an  ordinary  team  can  haul  3  tons 
of  net  load ;  or  Sunol,  if  it  was  not  for  pounding  her  heels,  might 
try  her  speed  with  safety  and  comfort  to  her  driver. 

Mr.  Pierce  accepted  his  position  as  Street  Commissioner  in  1885 
with  the  understanding  that  4-inch  roads  would  be  built,  and  would 
prove  not  only  cheaper  but  at  least  as  good  as  the  Telford  roads 
then  existing  in  the  city.  So  far,  judging  from  their  appearance, 
and  from  conversation  with  two  of  the  Board  of  Public  Works,  as 
well  as  with  Mr.  Pierce,  they  are  better  than  these  Telford  roads, 
and  under  equally  heavy  traffic  are  at  least  as  easily  and  cheaply 


292  ROADS. 

maintained.  Two  theories  are  advanced  in  explanation  of  this. 
One  that  the  earth  works  up,  into  and  through  the  voids  in  the  Tel- 
ford  foundation.  The  other  that  the  road  metal  works  down  into 
these  same  voids.  To  these  I  desire  to  add  a  third  ;  that  the  Tel- 
ford  foundation  acts  as  an  anvil,  between  which  and  the  wheels  of 
passing  vehicles  the  road  metal  is  pounded  to  pieces.  This,  it  is 
well  known,  is  analogous  to  the  effect  of  the  stone  blocks  used  on 
the  introduction  of  railroads  here  ;  blocks  which  were  all  taken  out 
probably  as  early  as  1846  to  1848. 

In  building  these  roads,  the  ground  is  graded  and  regulated 
with  a  gutter  18  inches  deep  on  each  side;  the  soil  is  then  thor- 
oughly rolled  with  a  15 -ton  roller,  and  the  stone  spread  on  the  sur- 
face so  prepared.  Three  varieties  of  soil  are  met  with  in  Bridgeport: 
a  fine  "dead"  sand,  which  sometimes  cannot  be  rolled  on  account 
of  its  pushing  before  the  roller,  without  covering  it  with  coarse, 
broken  stone  ;  this  expedient,  acting  as  a  pavement,  prevents  move- 
ment ;  loam,  a  very  fine  gravel,  and  a  hard  pan  with  mica  dissemi- 
nated through  it.  Underdraining  has  in  no  case  been  resorted  to, 
the  1 8-inch  gutters  being  depended  on  for  drainage.  After  the 
broken  trap- rock  is  roiled  to  a  bearing,  screenings  are  added  as  a 
binder  and  the  road  metal  is  well  and  thoroughly  filled  with  them, 
the  whole  being  rolled  until  the  water  flushes  on  the  surface.  A 
strong  silicious  sand  is  sometimes  used,  in  part,  in  place  of  screen- 
ings, and  when,  in  dry  weather,  the  road  commences  to  break  up  or 
"  ravel,"  out  of  easy  access  by  watering  carts,  sand  is  spread  over 
the  spot,  which  quickly  consolidates  the  road.  No  loam  or  clay  is 
used  as  a  binder  or  filler  in  the  construction  of  the  roads  nor  in  their 
repair,  except  when  the  surface  over  a  ditch  is  to  be  replaced  and  it 
is  too  small  a  patch  to  justify  bringing  the  roller  ;  then  the  broken 
trap  is  laid  down  after  being  mixed  with  the  proper  quantity  of 
screenings  and  the  whole  covered  with  loam  ;  the  traffic  consolidates 
it  in  a  short  time. 

Reference  was  made  to  two  cases  in  which  the  thickness  of  four 
inches  was  increased.  One  of  these,  a  road  near  the  winter  quar- 
ters of  "  the  greatest  show  on  earth,"  was  built  on  sand  which,  on 
being  thoroughly  wet,  became  quicksand.  In  dry  weather  the  road 
stood  without  injury  a  net  load  of  42  gross  tons,  drawn  by  24  horses, 
but  in  a  wet  time  the  road  would  wave  under  net  loads  of  2\  gross 
tons,  and  at  last  broke  through  in  places  ;  three  inches  of  stone  were 
added,  since  which  the  road  has  stood  without  further  care.  The 
standard  loads  on  this  road,  hauled  by  the  teams  of  a  copper-works, 
varied  before  it  was  stoned,  between  12  and  20  gross  hundred- 
weights ;  50  hundredweights  are  now  regularly  hauled.  The  other 
instance  of  reinforcing  the  depth  occurred  over  an  undrained  pocket 


ROADS.  293 

in  rock.  The  road  in  this  instance  also  waved  under  heavy  loads 
for  some  time  and  then  broke  through  ;  an  addition  of  three  inches 
of  broken  stone  stopped  all  trouble. 

The  relation  of  these  two  instances  to  the  necessity  for  large 
expenses  for  drainage  and  to  the  theorem  of  the  square  of  the  depth, 
can  be  seen  by  any  engineer.  But  it  should  be  noted  that  in  addition 
to  Mr.  Pierce's  care  to  have  all  voids  in  his  road  metal  thoroughly 
filled  with  clean  (/.  e.,  free  from  loam)  binding,  the  trap  he  uses  is 
one  of  the  strongest  known.  The  thorough  filling  of  the  interstices 
probably  prevents  dirt  from  working  up  into  the  road  and  acting  as 
a  lubricant,  and  a  weaker  stone,  not  presenting  such  strong  angles, 
might  not  give  a  road  of  sufficient  cohesive  strength  to  stand  waving 
on  a  soft  bottom  before  breaking  through. 

That  underdraining  is  unnecessary  with  a  well  built  road,  where 
the  gutters  on  each  side  are  built  to  grade  and  kept  clean,  receive 
fresh  proof  from  the  fact  that  the  main  road  from  the  quarry  sup- 
plying broken  stones  to  the  city  is  so  built  through  a  succession  of 
micaceous  hardpan  cuts.  Between  100  and  200  wagons  and  carts 
have  passed  over  the  road  daily  through  February  and  March  with- 
out injuring  it,  the  wagons  carrying  from  40  to  60  gross  hundred- 
weights, and  the  two-wheeled  carts  from  20  to  27  hundredweights. 
But  where  springs  find  vent  under  the  road-bed  they  should  in  all 
instances  be  drained  into  the  gutter. 

The  gutters,  which  are  carefully  made  to  an  established  grade, 
are  kept  clean  and  free  from  grass  and  weeds,  whether  paved  or 
unpaved.  The  weeds  are  dug  up,  and  the  grass  is  killed  by  spread- 
ing a  thin  layer  of  sand  over  it  on  hot  days  ;  entailing,  in  this  point 
as  in  all  others  connected  with  the  roads  under  discussion,  persistent 
and  intelligent  maintenance. 

It  should  be  noticed,  in  connection  with  the  low  cost  mentioned 
above — about  28  cents  per  square  yard — that  Bridgeport,  in  addition 
to  the  possession  of  particularly  good  trap-rock,  is  exceptionally 
favored  in  the  location  of  its  quarry,  almost  exactly  two  miles  from 
the  centre  of  the  city  ;  so  that  the  cost  of  the  stone  is  82  cents  per 
gross  ton,  of  21  or  22  cubic  feet,  delivered  to  the  wagons,  and  the 
cost  of  hauling  varies,  depending  on  the  distance,  from  50  to  75 
cents  per  ton,  or  between  $1.32  and  $1.57  per  gross  ton  delivered  on 
the  road.  The  trap-rock  is  broken  to  2-inch  size  by  three  7x10 
inch  Marsden  crushers,  placed  side  by  side  on  a  platform,  to 
which  cars  are  drawn  from  the  quarry  by  a  wire  rope,  wound  by  the 
same  engine  which  runs  the  crushers.  The  interest  on  the  cost  of 
the  roller — an  Aveling  &  Porter,  now  twenty  years  old — is  not 
reckoned  in  the  above-mentioned  cost. 


294  ROADS. 

That  the  cost  of  the  Bridgeport  roads  has  not  been  under-esti- 
mated, is  apparently  made  certain  by  the  contract  price  of  such  work 
in  the  neighboring  town  of  Fairfield,  where,  with  a  longer  haul,  a 
four-inch  road  20  feet  wide  was  built  for  85  cents  per  lineal  foot,  or 
38.3  cents  per  square  yard.  This  sum  included  regulating,  some 
grading  and  the  use  of  a  roller,  as  well  as  the  contractor's  profit. 

Nothing  written  above  is  intended  to  imply,  if  a  road  is  to  be 
built,  and  then,  as  has  been  the  case  with  the  Telford  roads  under 
the  care  of  the  Department  of  Public  Works  in  this  city,  receives  no 
attention  from  a  reasoning  being,  that  a  Telford  road  will  not  last 
in  some  condition  longer  than  a  four-inch  macadam  road.  Nor  is  it 
intended  to  imply  that  only  the  best  trap-rock  is  applicable  to  four- 
inch  roads,  nor  that  a  less  or  greater  depth  of  road  metal  may  not  in 
cases  be  preferred. 

But  engineers  are  urged,  in  view  of  the  successful  effort  of  Mr. 
Pierce  to  give  the  citizens  of  Bridgeport  three  or  four  miles  of  good 
road  for  one,  to  neglect  precedents  and  written  authorities  and  try 
to  fit  their  roads  to  the  necessities  of  traffic,  and  the  means  of  the 
community  employing  them  and  the  materials  in  hand.  Remember- 
ing that  it  may  be  better  to  have  a  patch  fail  in  a  road  three  miles 
long  than  to  have  one  mile  of  road  that  will  not  fail,  neither  road 
can  be  kept  in  good  surface  without  maintenance.  And  a  thorough- 
ness in  building  roads  which  involves  so  large  an  expenditure  as  to 
prevent  road-building,  is  not,  it  is  submitted,  thoroughly  good 
engineering. 

Mr.  Pierce  is  an  enthusiast  in  the  matter  of  his  style  of  roads, 
and  will  doubtless  be  willing  to  meet  any  engineer  who  notifies  him 
of  his  desire  to  visit  Bridgeport  and  show  him  the  results  he  has 
attained. 

THIN    MACADAM    ROADS.* 

Mr.  James  Owen,  County  Engineer  of  Essex  County,  N.  J., 
under  whose  direction  the  admirable  macadam  roads  about  Orange 
have  been  built,  sends  the  following  discussion  on  Mr.  E.  P.  North's 
article  on  the  Bridgeport  macadam  roads,  which  appeared  in  our 
last  issue. 

We  should  be  glad  to  supplement  this  with  the  views  of  other 
engineers  who  can  speak  from  their  experience.  Mr.  Owen  writes  : 

I  was  much  interested  in  reading  the  article  in  your  last  issue  on  the 
macadam  roads  at  Bridgeport,  by  Mr.  North,  and  the  experience  there 
detailed  is  very  gratifying,  and  as  it  adds  an  iota  to  the  very  scanty  infor- 
mation available  on  the  construction  of  hard  roads,  whether  of  Telford  or 
Macadam. 

*xxi,  74. 


ROADS.  295 

I  must  demur,  however,  to-  the  acceptance  of  the  construction  of  4-  inch 
roads,  as  there  detailed,  in  any  other  way  than  as  an  isolated  fact;  whatever 
success  there  was  must  have  been  due  to  the  peculiarities  of  soil  and  loca- 
tion, and  such  work  should  not  be  taken  as  a  precedent  to  be  followed  in 
any  and  all  cases. 

Like  Mr.  Pierce,  of  Bridgeport,  I  obtained  my  early  experience  in  the 
sixties  in  the  construction  of  park  roads  in  Brooklyn,  when  the  thickness  of 
pavement  was  never  less  than  16  inches,  laid  on  a  bed  of  12  inches  of  sand, 
and  was  undoubtedly  a  Telford  pavement.  When,  however,  I  had  to 
initiate  in  New  Jersey  a  more  economical  system  I  decided  on  a  depth  of  12 
inches,  8  inches  of  pavement  and  4  inches  of  broken  stone ;  between  30 
and  40  miles  were  constructed  of  this  depth  in  the  avenues  radiating  from 
Newark  through  the  Oranges  and  Montclair.  They  have  stood  the  wear 
and  tear  for  sixteen  years  admirably,  of  course  with  proper  repairs,  and  in 
only  two  or  three  instances  did  the  foundation  ever  blow  up.  These  roads 
were  county  roads,  and  really  main  arteries,  but  when  the  local  committees 
decided  to  build  their  own  roads,  the  divergence  of  opinion  and  lack  of 
crystallized  sentiment  led  to  the  adoption  of  anything  from  4  to  12  inches, 
and  the  result  has  been  in  the  same  ratio  as  the  thickness.  The  Oranges, 
East,  West  and  the  City,  have  laid  their  roads  10  to  12  inches  in  thickness, 
and  the  uniformly  good  condition  of  their  roads  are  proverbial.  Bloomfield 
and  Montclair  have  been  building  theirs  6  inches,  and  the  difference  is 
remarkable  ;  ruts  quickly  appear,  holes  are  common,  and  they  look  as  they 
are,  cheap  roads.  In  these  cases,  however,  there  was  an  attempt  at  a  pave- 
ment. In  other  townships,  like  Clinton,  Millburn  and  parts  of  South 
Orange,  no  attempt  has  been  made  further  than  to  spread  4  to  6  inches  of 
broken  stone  on  the  natural  soil,  and  the  result  shows  that  it  is  to  a  certain 
extent  a  waste  of  money.  The  only  advantage  accruing  in  such  a  road 
is  to  keep  the  wagons  from  getting  mired,  but  as  means  of  travel  they  do 
not  reach  to  a  very  high  order. 

In  the  red  sandstone  formation  of  New  Jersey,  in  which  all  the  roads 
mentioned  are  laid,  there  are  critical  periods,  especially  when  the  frost  is  com- 
ing out,  when  it  seems  absolutely  necessary  to  have  a  foundation  of  some  sort 
to  keep  the  roads  from  breaking  up,  and  only  in  specially  favored  localities 
is  it  possible  to  keep  a  6-inch  pavement  without  rutting  unless  there  is  a 
sharp  fall  to  the  roads.  In  the  latest  roads  built  in  this  section  at  Belleville 
I  adopted  a  rule  of  making  the  thickness  of  pavement  as  follows:  For 
grades  flatter  than  i  per  cent.,  10  inches;  between  i  and  4  per  cent.,  8 
inches ;  and  over  4  per  cent. ,  6  inches.  This  is  the  thinnest  construction 
advisable  in  this  locality  with  any  certainty  of  good  permanent  results, 
unless  the  roads  are  merely  built  as  a  preventative  from  miring  instead  of 
from  travel. 

The  practice  in  gutter  construction,  as  outlined  in  the  Bridgeport,  I 
have  also  tried,  but  with  no  great  results  except  on  steep  grades.  In  con- 
clusion, I  wish  to  deprecate  as  strongly  as  possible  the  idea  of  doing  cheap 
work  in  road  construction,  as  in  my  experience  there  is  more  money  wasted 
in  these  attempts  than  is  generally  realized.  A  community,  if  educated  to 
a  proper  standard,  will  prefer  to  spend  a  dollar  well  than  fifty  cents  in 
make-shifts,  and  it  should  be  the  duty  of  every  engineer  to  guide  them  to 
that  end. 


296  ROADS. 

THIN    ROADS.* 

SIR — I  am  very  much  obliged  to  Mr.  Owen  for  his  criticism  on  the 
article  you  did  me  the  honor  to  print  on  the  28th  ultimo  ;  as  it  allows  me  to 
say  what  I  evidently  did  not  sufficiently  emphasize,  and  which  is,  in  my 
opinion,  the  key  to  success  in  macadam  or  thin  road  building,  that  the 
excellence  of  Mr.  Pierce's  roads,  after  the  hard  stone  he  can  command,  is 
due  to  his  care  to  have  all  voids  in  his  road  metal  thoroughly  filled  with 
clean  (/.  <?.,  free  from  loam),  binding,  and  to  the  use  of  a  steam  road-roller 
of  competent  weight.  The  points  which  it  seems  I  should  have  emphasized 
are : 

First. — Thoroughly  compacting  the  soil  by  rolling  before  the  broken 
stone  is  applied. 

Second. — Clean  binding,  which,  if  possible,  should  always  offer  as 
great  or  greater  resistance  to  crushing  as  the  stone  employed,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  either  filling  or  lubricating  material. 

Third . — The  use  of  a  steam  road -roller  of  competent  weight. 

Fourth. — The  combination  of  these  two,  in  connection  with  sufficient 
skill,  resulting  in  a  wheel-way  that  is  without  voids  in  its  lower  surface, 
inviting  the  percolation  of  mud  from  below,  that  is  sufficiently  compact  to 
shed  rain  and  has  some  cohesive  strength,  while  the  clean  binding,  which 
is  strenuously  insisted  on,  prevents  movement  of  the  stones  among  them- 
selves and  keeps  their  angles  from  wearing  off. 

These  points,  I  think  it  may  justly  be  said,  were  entirely  overlooked  by 
Mr.  Owen  in  his  communication.  The  thin  roads  he  describes  were,  as 
seen  by  me,  made  by  putting  from  four  to  six  inches  of  broken  trap  on  un- 
rolled earth,  the  broken  stone  filled  with  screenings  and  clay,  and  in  some 
instances  with  clay  alone,  and  either  left  to  be  compacted  by  the  traffic  or 
rolled  with  a  horse-roller.  In  the  thicker  roads,  Telford,  clay  was  not 
always  excluded  from  the  binding  and  some  at  least,  of  them  were  rolled 
with  horse-rollers. 

If  roads  are  to  be  built  in  this  way  they  should  undoubtedly  be  mass- 
ive. They  will  have  no  cohesive  strength,  they  will  not  present  surfaces 
impervious  either  to  the  mud  from  below  or  to  the  rain  from  above  ;  the 
clay  fillling  will  be  utterly  without  the  strength  necessary  to  keep  stones 
from  wearing  each  other  out  under  traffic,  except  when  just  passing  from 
dampness  to  dryness,  and  with  even  the  most  careful  horse  rolling  the 
angles  of  the  stones  will  be  more  or  less  worn  off  before  the  road  is  com- 
pacted. 

Such  a  road,  if  sufficiently  massive,  will  be  a  great  improvement  on  the 
red  soil  of  Eastern  New  Jersey  when  frost  is  coming  out  of  the  ground, 
but  it  must  depend  on  its  mass.  The  construction  of  such  roads,  whether 
thick  or  thin,  is  strongly  deprecated  by  the  writer  in  all  cases  where  skill  to 
properly  construct  thin  roads  at  from  one-half  to  one-third  of  their  cost  can 
be  commanded. 

I  wish  to  urge  in  this  communication,  as  in  my  first,  the  necessity  for 
doing  cheap  work  in  all  cases  where  cheap  work  can  be  made  to  accomplish 
the  service  of  more  costly  work,  and  also  in  cases  where  the  cheap  work 
and  a  renewal  will  not  cost  more  than  the  expensive  work.  Further,  I 
would  in  general  substitute  skill  in  construction  for  mass,  in  conformity 

*xxi,  87. 


ROADS.  297 

with  American  practice.  Mr.  Owen,  I  think,  will  agree  with  me  in  this, 
and  would  not  have  objected  to  the  Bridgeport  roads  or  their  mode  of  con- 
struction if  either  he  had  seen  them  or  I  had  been  more  felicitous  in  their 
description.  My  preference  for  a  steam-rolled  road  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  horse's  feet,  in  drawing  a  roller,  always  churn  the  broken  stones  more 
or  less  and  wear  off  their  angles,  and  the  roller  itself  does  not  have  the 
drawing  action  of  driving  wheels,  an  action  which,  I  believe,  speedily 
places  the  stones  in  such  a  position  that  they  present  the  minimum  of  void 
spaces  to  be  filled  with  binding ;  for,  however  strong  the  fragment  of 
screenings  may  be,  it  will  not  offer  the  same  resistance  to  crushing  that  a 
2-inch  cube  does. 

There  is  a  necessity  for  better  reads.  A  thick  road  will  last  longer 
under  both  neglectful  construction  and  maintenance  than  a  thin  road,  but 
it  costs  from  two  to  three  times  as  much.  Communities  in  general  are  not 
yet  educated  to  spend  even  fifty  cents  much  less  a  dollar.  And  a  thorough- 
ness in  building  roads,  which  involves  so  large  an  expenditure  as  to  prevent 
road  building,  is  not,  it  is  submitted,  thoroughly  good  engineering,  particu- 
larly if  skillful  building  and  maintenance  will  keep  the  thin  road  in  as  good 
order  as  one  thicker  and  more  expensive.  EDWARD  P.  NORTH. 

MACADAM  ROADS  IN  UNION  COUNTY,  N.  J.* 

Some  35  miles  of  Telford  macadam  roads  are  being  constructed 
in  Union  County,  N.  J.,  under  the  direction  of  F.  A.  Dunham,  the 
County  Engineer,  and  in  view  of  the  recent  discussion  of  the  sub- 
ject in  these  columns  by  Messrs.  North  and  Owen,  it  was  believed 
that  some  account  of  this  work  would  be  of  interest.  A  representa- 
tive of  THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD  accordingly 
called  on  Mr.  Dunham  and  learned  the  following  facts  :  Some  15 
or  1 6  miles  of  road  are  under  construction,  but  none  have  yet  been 
completed.  The  paving  is  16  feet  wide,  and  when  12  inches  thick 
and  with  a  haul  of  material  of  from  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a-half  it 
costs  from  90  cents  to  $i  per  square  yard,  or  from  $8,000  to  $10,000 
per  mile.  The  bottom  stone  costs,  delivered,  about  $1.15  per  ton, 
and  the  fine  stone  somewhat  more. 

In  constructing  the  road  the  ground  is  first  leveled  off  to  the 
proper  height,  all  soft  places  are  carefully  dug  out,  and  with  other 
hollows  filled  to  the  sub-grade  with  gravel,  cinders  or  slag. 

The  surface  is  then  thoroughly  rolled  with  a  horse  roller 
weighing  from  2  to  5  tons,  and  the  Telford  foundation  laid  on  by 
hand.  This  is  of  sound  trap  rock,  and  for  12-inch  paving  the  stones 
are  8  inches  deep,  not  more  than  5  inches  wide  on  top,  and  from  8 
to  12  inches  long  ;  for  8-inch  paving  the  stones  are  5  inches  deep, 
not  more  than  3  inches  wide,  and  from  5  to  8  inches  long.  They 
are  set  on  their  broadest  side,  with  their  length  at  right  angles  to  the 
road,  and  so  as  to  break  joint  at  least  i  inch.  They  are  then  firmly 
wedged  by  driving  down  between  them  other  stones  of  the  same 

*xxi,"  101. 


298  ROADS. 

quality,  and  as  near  as  may  be,  the  same  depth.  All  irregular  pro- 
jections are  "  napped  "  off  with  a  light  hammer  so  as  to  leave  a 
tolerably  uniform  surface. 

On  the  foundation  thus  prepared,  the  broken  stone  or  macadam 
of  sound  trap  rock  is  laid  in  two  courses.  The  stones  of  the  bottom 
course  for  the  1 2-inch  paving  must  pass  through  a  2j-inch  ring  and 
be  leveled  off  to  2  inches  below  the  finished  surface,  and  for  the 
8-inch  paving  the  stones  must  pass  through  a  i-J-inch  ring,  and  be 
leveled  off  to  i-J  inches  below  the  finished  surface.  The  broken 
stone  is  then  thoroughly  rolled  with  a  lo-ton  steam  roller,  and  dry 
trap  rock  screenings  that  will  pass  through  a  i-inch  ring  are  rolled 
into  it  until  the  interstices  are  well  filled.  The  top  course  is  then 
applied  of  the  same  material,  but  broken  to  pass  through  a  i^-inch 
ring.  For  this  course  the  binding  material  is  mixed  with  trap 
screenings  and  clean  sharp  gravel,  not  exceeding  half  an  inch  in  any 
dimension,  which  is  well  worked  in  with  a  lo-ton  steam  roller  water 
being  applied  at  the  same  time  to  facilitate  the  packing,  and  when 
the  desired  level  is  reached  enough  water  is  used  to  flush  to  the  sur- 
face and  sufficient  gravel  added  to  form  a  wave  before  the  roller. 
Each  layer  is  thoroughly  amalgamated  with  that  below,  which,  if 
necessary,  is  roughened  for  the  purpose. 

The  centre  of  the  pavement  is  crowded  up  18  inches  in  the 
middle,  and  the  unpaved  portions  of  either  side  are  well  rolled,  so 
as  to  form  a  good  shoulder  to  support  the  edge  of  the  paving. 
Suitable  gutters  are  formed  on  either  side  of  the  road  and  under- 
drains  constructed  where  necessary. 

The  contractor  is  paid  for  labor  and  material  for  macadamizing 
pavement  at  so  much  per  square  yard,  and  for  grading,  opening  gut- 
ters, etc.,  at  so  much  per  cubic  yard.  He  is  required  to  keep  the 
work  in  repair  for  one  year,  and  10  per  cent,  is  deducted  from  all 
payments  due  him  to  cover  the  expense  of  making  such  repairs 
should  he  fail  to  do  so. 

The  cost  of  repairs  and  maintenance  is  estimated  at  not  over 
$250  a  mile  per  year. 

Some  roads  constructed  as  above  have  been  in  use  in  the 
country  for  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years,  and  with  proper  main- 
tenance have  given  very  good  satisfaction. 

CAN    MACADAM     BE     ACCURATELY     MEASURED     WHEN     LAID     ON    THE 

ROADWAY.* 

LEXINGTON,  Mo. 

SIR  :  Please  inform  me  either  through  the  columns  of  your  paper,  or  by 
letter,  whether  you  can  get  an  accurate  answer  for  the  measurement  of 
macadam,  if  you  have  the  length,  breadth  and  thickness,  if  said  rock  is 
properly  spread.  Also,  please  inform  me  whether  you  can  ascertain  the 

*  XX,  220. 


ROADS.  299 

amount  of  macadam  on  a  block  after  it  is  spread.     By  answering  these 

questions  you  will  greatly  oblige. 

W.  S.  CLAGETT. 

The  answer  to  your  first  question  seems  so  obvious  that  we 
must  conclude  that  you  wish  to  estimate  the  shrinkage  that  takes 
place  when  the  road  metal  or  macadam  is  compacted  by  rolling  to  a 
proper  surface,  or,  in  other  words,  that  you  wish  to  know  how  much 
loose  stone  it  will  take  to  cover  a  given  surface  of  macadam  road  to 
a  given  thickness,  or  that  you  may  have  contracted  for  a  given 
amount  of  broken  stone  to  be  used  in  making  a  macadam  road, 
and  having  neglected  to  measure  it  in  advance,  now  wish  to  esti- 
mate it  from  the  finished  work.  The  only  satisfactory  way  to  make 
an  estimate  would  be  to  experiment  under  similar  conditions  with  a 
measured  quantity  of  loose  stone,  and  having  found  the  proportion 
of  shrinkage,  the  original  volume  of  the  stone  can  be  easily  calcu- 
lated from  the  finished  work. 

If  not  convenient  to  make  such  an  experiment,  or  the  import- 
ance of  the  work  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant  it,  perhaps  the  following 
facts  may  enable  you  to  arrive  at  a  reasonably  satisfactory  conclu- 
sion. 

One  cubic  yard  of  solid  rock  will,  when  broken  and  loosely 
piled,  occupy  about  i  .9  cubic  yards,  and  when  carefully  piled,  about 
i  .6  cubic  yards.  If  the  voids  in  well  rolled  macadam  bear  the  same 
proportion  that  they  do  in  carefully  piled  broken  stone,  which  would 
seem  to  be  a  reasonable  supposition,  then  if  you  multiply  the  cubic 
contents  of  your  finished  macadam  work  by,  say,  1.2,  you  will  get 
the  amount  of  loose  stone  that  was  used  to  make  it,  or  if  you  multi- 
ply the  amount  of  finished  macadam  by  f ,  you  will  get  the  amount 
of  solid  rock  that  had  to  be  quarried  for  it. 

The  only  way  to  get  at  the  amount  of  macadam  after  laying  is 
to  measure  the  surface,  and  multiply  by  the  average  thickness,  as 
ascertained  by  making  a  sufficient  number  of  holes. 

MACADAM     IN    CITIES.* 

In  a  report  on  pavements  made  to  the  Common  Council  of 
Topeka,  Kan.,  the  following  brief  summary  is  given  of  the  experience 
of  a  number  of  cities  with  macadam. 

The  authorities  of  Toronto  say:  "  Our  experience  is  enough  to 
utterly  condemn  it.  We  have  spent  more  than  $10,000,000  in  macad- 
amizing streets,  which  became  seas  of  mud  after  a  few  hours'  rain. 
It  will  actually  cost  the  residents  on  Yonge  Street  thousands  of  dol- 
lars to  get  rid  of  the  macadam  and  put  themselves  in  the  favorable 
position  of  having  only  a  dirt  road  to  be  dealt  with." 

*xv,  375. 


300 


ROADS. 


In  Fall  River  the  stone  used  is  harder,  but  "  macadam  roads 
v/ill  not  stand  the  wear  due  to  heavy  teaming." 

In  Sandusky,  O.,  limestone  is  used  for  the  macadam,  and  "  it 
wears  away  so  rapidly  that  it  requires  almost  constant  attention  "  to 
keep  it  in  order. 

The  Board  of  Public  Works  of  Washington  consider  it  as  only 
suitable  for  country  roads. 

Cincinnati  reports  "  the  chief  thing  permanent  about  the  lime- 
stone macadam  of  that  city  has  been  the  permanent  expenditure  for 
repairs." 

St.  Louis  recommends  the  abandonment  of  limestone  macadam 
on  account  of  rapid  wear,  mud  and  dust. 

Mr.  Hill,  City  Engineer  of  New  Haven,  reports  that  though 
cheapest  in  first  cost,  even  the  best  macadam  is  more  expensive  to 
maintain. 

In  Kansas  City,  St.  Joseph,  Omaha,  Atchinson  and  Leavenworth 
it  is  being  taken  up,  or  is  only  used  on  streets  where  pleasure  driv- 
ing is  the  rule. 

The  committee  therefore  decide  they  "would  prefer  the  present 
dirt  roads." 

PAVEMVNT    PROTECTOR    FOR    HYDRANT    FLUSHING. * 

This  device  is  intended  to  prevent  the  injurious  washing  of 
macadam  pavements  by  the  flushing  of  fire  hydrants.  It  is  simply 
a  box  about  3  feet  long  by  two  2  feet  wide  and  high,  with  a 

PAVEMENT  PROTECTOR  FOR  FLUSHING  HYDRANTS 


sort  of  shelf  projecting  at  each  end  about  a  foot  at  the  bottom. 
The  bottom  and  ends  of  this  box  are  loosely  made  of  slats,  so  that 
water  can  escape  freely  in  all  directions  but  in  no  large  streams  in 
any  direction.  It  is  connected  to  the  hydrant  to  be  flushed  by 
about  8  feet  of  large  canvas  hose,  and  the  force  of  the  escaping 
water  being  dissipated  through  the  numerous  openings  prevents 
injury  to  the  pavement.  It  is  mounted  on  wheels  for  convenience 
of  transportation  and  has  proved  very  useful.  The  arrangement 
was  devised  by  R.  C.  P.  Coggeshall,  Superintendent  and  Engineer 
of  the  New  Bedford  (Mass.)  Water- Works. 

*xix,  133. 


ROADS.  301 

A    FIRST    PRIZE    TREATISE  ^ON    THE    SCIENCE    OF    ROAD-MAKING.* 

Introduction. — This  treatise  was  written  in  answer  to  the  printed 
circular  of  a  Committee  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  calling  for 
"  treatises  upon  the  science  of  road  making,  and  the  best  methods 
of  superintending  the  construction  and  repair  of  public  roads  in  this 
Commonwealth."  [Massachusetts.] 

This  circular  was  issued  about  the  middle  of  December,  and  as 
the  time  for  writing  and  sending  in  the  called  for  essays  \vas  limited 
to  January  28,  the  writer  has  thought  it  best,  no  specific  character 
being  prescribed  for  the  treatises,  to  attempt  to  write  one  suitable 
to  be  so  called  from  the  stand-point  of  the  public,  rather  than  from 
that  of  the  civil  engineer,  and,  giving  results  rather  than  the  methods 
of  arriving  at  them,  to  be  as  concise  as  possible. 

The  Science  of  Road  Making.— Starting,  then,  with  the  first  of 
the  two  subjects  mentioned  in  the  circular — the  science  of  road 
making — we  can  divide  this  into  three  periods  :  (i)  laying  out  a 
road  ;  (2)  making  the  road-bed,  which  includes  all  earthworks, 
cutting  and  filling,  culverts,  drains,  bridges,  even  tunnels,  etc.;  and 
(3)  the  making  of  the  road  surface  ;  to  which,  not  improperly,  might 
be  added,  (4)  keeping  the  road  in  repair. 

Laying  Out  a  Road. — The  considerations  which  determine  the 
best  location  of  a  road,  are  those  arising  from  the  nature  of  the 
travel  it  is  proposed  to  accommodate  ;  that  is,  from  the  admissible 
grades,  radii  of  curves,  etc.  Given  two  points  it  is  desired  to  con- 
nect, with  no  intermediate  point  where  the  road  is  to  touch,  that 
route  is  the  best  which  will  cost  least  to  build  and  maintain,  the 
grades  and  curves  being  kept  within  bounds  ;  and  to  find  this 
location  constitutes  the  whole  problem  of  the  engineer. 

In  older  countries,  where  trade  and  manufactures  are  more 
settled  and  unchanging  than  in  the  United  States,  the  probable 
future  travel  upon  a  road  about  to  be  laid  out  and  built,  forms  a 
material  element  in  the  data  that  govern  its  alignment  and  grades. 
A  very  able  and  clever  article  upon  this  subject  may  be  found  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  and  Architects  at  Hanover, 
for  the  year  1869,  and  also  in  pamphlet  form.  It  is  in  the  German 
language,  written  by  Launhardt,  Superintendent  of  Highways  (and 
a  civil  engineer)  in  the  Hanoverian  provinces. 

The  Romans  built  all  of  their  roads  in  perfectly  straight  lines* 
up  hill  and  down,  at  a  very  great  expense,  as  being  absolutely  the 

*  By  Clemens  Herschel,  Civil  Engineer,  of  Boston,  now  of  Montclair, 
N.  J.  xix,  187.  This  treatise  was  written  in  1870  and  reprinted  in  1877. 
We  now  give  it,  by  request,  on  account  of  its  intrinsic  merit,  and  because 
the  principles  on  which  it  is  based  are  unalterable,  and  the  methods,  with 
such  primitive  materials,  can  change  but  little. 


302  ROADS 

shortest  distance  between  two  points.  At  a  later  period  in  history, 
it  was  argued  that  a  road  must  be  winding  to  be  agreeable,  and 
many  were  so  built  only  for  this  reason.  The  modern  road  builder 
or  engineer  in  general,  ignores  any  such  considerations,  and  has  for 
his  aim  only  to  achieve  the  most,  at  the  least  present  and  future 
expense. 

As  regards  curves  in  roads  in  a  hilly  and  mountainous  district, 
we  have  then  the  rules  never  to  make  a  smaller  radius  than  20  feet, 
and  that  only  in  extraordinary  cases.  On  roads  where  long  logging 
or  other  wagons  may  be  expected,  the  smallest  radius  ought  to  be 
50  or  60  feet ;  and,  in  general,  40  to  45  feet  is  none  too  much. 

A  rule  sometimes  followed  in  constructing  mountain  roads,  is, 
where  the  inclination  is  i  or  2  in  a  hundred,  *  heavy  teams  require 
40  feet  and  light  ones  30  feet  radius  ;  with  a  grade  of  2  or  3  in  a 
hundred,  heavy  teams  require  65  feet  and  light  ones  50  feet  radius. 
Where  a  reverse  curve  (shaped  like  the  letter  S)  occurs,  there  should 
be  a  straight  piece  connecting  the  two  curves  (Fig.  i).  On  the 


FIG  .  /        FJG.  2 


contrary,  where  the  two  curves  to  be  connected  are  concave  in  the 
same  direction,  the  connecting  link  should  be  curved  also,  and  not 
straight  (Fig.  2).  On  the  length  of  the  curves  the  grade  should  be 
made  easier  than  on  the  parts  of  the  road  immediately  adjoining. 

As  regards  grades,  to  start  with  mountainous  paths,  we  find 
pedestrians  able  to  walk  up  an  inclination  of  100  in  120;  mules 
ponies,  etc.,  100  in  173.  For  roads,  Telford's  rule  was,  that  for 
horses  attached  to  ordinary  vehicles,  to  trot  up  a  hill  rising  3  to  one 
hundred,  was  equal  to  walking  up  one  of  a  5  in  a  hundred  grade. 

Experiments  have  shown  that — 

i.  On  a  road  falling  2  in  a  hundred,  vehicles  would  run  down 
themselves. 

*  In  describing  grades,  the  first  figure  gives  the  vertical  height  which 
is  ascended  in  a  horizontal  distance  given  by  the  second  figure.  Both 
figures  must  of  course  be  taken  to  refer  to  the  same  unit  of  length,  thus : 
100  feet  in  120  feet,  100  inches  in  120  inches,  or  100  miles  in  120  miles,  all 
express  the  same  inclination  to  a  level  plane,  and  are  more  general  in  their 
application  than  the  ways  of  expressing  grades  in  so  many  inches  to  the 
foot,  or  feet  in  one  mile,  etc. ,  etc. 


ROADS,  303 

2.  On  the  same  kind  of  road,  but  having  an  inclination  of  4  in 
a  hundred,  light  vehicles  had  to  be  held  back  lightly,  loaded  ones 
with  considerable  force. 

3.  On  a  road  having  a  fall  of  5^  in  a  hundred,  light  vehicles  had 
to  be  held  back  with  considerable  force,  or  if  a  brake  was  applied 
they  had  to  be  pulled,  whereas  heavy  or  loaded  vehicles  had  to  be 
braked  to  keep  the  horses  from  being  speedily  exhausted. 

On  inclinations  steeper  than  5  in  a  hundred,  the  rain-water  run- 
ning down  the  road  is  apt  to  do  some  damage  to  the  road  surface. 

The  regulations  of  different  countries  having  a  long  experience 
in  road  building,  such  as  France,  Prussia,  Baden,  etc.,  vary  some- 
what, but  the  following  is  the  general  result: 

In  treating  of  roads,  it  often  renders  the  subject  much  clearer 
to  divide  them  into  three  classes  :  First,  second  and  third  class 
roads,  or,  as  we  might  also  say,  state,  county  and  town  roads. 
Accepting  this  nomenclature,  we  have  this  :  For  first  class  or  state 
roads,  the  greatest  inclination  should  not  exceed  3  to  5  in  a  hundred; 
second  class  or  county  roads,  5  to  7  in  a  hundred  ;  third  class  or 
town  roads,  7  to  10  in  a  hundred.  A  road  rising  10  in  a  hundred  is 
not  supposed  ever  to  have  any  heavy  teams  upon  it.  In  ascending 
a  hill  it  is  well  and  proper  to  decrease  the  grade  as  the  top  is 
reached,  and  in  the  same  measure  as  the  horses  get  tired.  Thus,  if 
a  first  class  road  starts  up  hill  with  a  grade  of  4^  per  hundred,  it 
should  gradually  diminish  to  4  and  3^  in  a  hundred,  and  end  near 
the  top  with  a  grade  of  3  in  a  hundred.  Launhardt,  the  Superintend- 
ent of  Highways,  and  engineer,  mentioned  in  the  previous  note,  has  a 
valuable  article  on  the  subject  of  the  best  grades  for  highways,  in 
the  engineering  journal  there  mentioned,  for  the  year  1867  ;  re- 
printed also  in  pamphlet  form.  He  shows  in  this  article  that, 
according  to  the  received  formula  that  expresses  the  relations  be- 
tween the  tractive  force,  the  velocity  in  feet  per  second,  and  the 
daily  working  hours  that  go  to  produce  the  maximum  amount  of 
work  that  can  be  got  out  of  a  draught-horse,  a  uniform  grade  between 
any  two  points,  except  perhaps  in  curves,  and,  if  desired,  for  resting 
places,  is  the  grade  that  tends  to  enable  the  horse,  or  other  draught- 
animal,  to  produce  the  most  work  per  diem.  If  a  grade  of  4  or  5  in  a 
hundred  must  needs  be  kept  up  for  some  distance,  then  it  is  well  to 
have  resting  places  40  or '50  feet  long,  having  a  grade  of  only  i £  or 
2  in  a  hundred,  in  the  line  of  the  road  at  proper  intervals.  An 
expedient  adopted  by  Telford,  the  eminent  English  engineer,  in 
order  to  avoid  making  a  piece  of  road  a  mile  long,  on  a  less  grade 
than  5  in  a  hundred,  on  account  of  the  increased  cost  this  would 
have  occasioned,  and  yet  not  have  this  part  of  the  road  too  much 
more  tiresome  for  the  horses  than  the  rest,  was  to  make  the  road 


304  ROADS. 

surface  on  this  mile  of  a  much  better  quality  than  on  the  remainder  ; 
the  additional  cost  required  for  the  improved  road-bed  amounting  to 
only  about  one-half  of  what  it  would  have  cost  to  reduce  the  grade  to 
say  4  in  a  hundred,  as  will  be  again  referred  to  under  the  head  of 
track-ways.  In  sharp  curves  the  grade  should  be  only  i  or  2  in  a 
hundred  or  level. 

Table  I.  gives  the  effects  of  various  grades  on  the  amount  a 
horse  can  pull. 

TABLE  I. 
Calling  the  load  a  horse  will  pull  on  a  level,  one  : 

Then,  on  a  grade  of     100,  a  horse  can  pull 0.90 

50,  "  "         0.81 

44,  "  "         0.75 

40,  v"  '  "         0,72 

30,  "  "         0.64 

26,  "  "         0.54 

24,  "  "         0.50 

20,  "  "  .     .  .    0.40 

10,        '•          "        0.25 

To  determine  whether  it  is  most  advisable  to  go  over  or  around 
a  hill,  all  other  considerations  being  equal,  we  have  this  rule  :  Call 
the  difference  between  the  distance  around  on  a  level  and  that  over 
the  hill  d,  the  distance  around  being  taken  as  the  greatest,  and  call 
h  the  height  of  the  hill. 

Then,  in  case  of  a  first  class  road,  we  go  around  when  d  is  less 
than  1 6  h. 

And  in  case  of  a  second  class  road  we  go  around  when  d  is  less 
than  10  h. 

When  the  height  of  a  necessary  embankment  gets  to  be  more 
than  60  or  65  feet,  a  bridge  or  viaduct  will  be  found  cheaper,  and 
the  same  measure,  60  feet,  applies  in  case  of  tunnels,  they  being 
cheaper  at  that  depth  than  open  cuttings. 

U  nder  the  head  of  laying  out  roads  something  should  be  said 
of  their  width.  Speaking  only  of  such  roads  as  are  not  apt  to  turn 
into  streets  from  their  proximity  to  towns  and  cities,  it  is  well  not 
to  make  them  too  broad,  for  the  less  the  width  the  less  the  cost  of 
construction  and  maintenance,  and  a  good  23-foot  road  is  much 
better  than  a  poor  one  40  or  more  feet  wide.  Each  rod  (i6J  feet) 
in  width  adds  two  acres  per  mile  to  the  road.  An  agreeable  form 
of  road  is  to  have  on  each,  or  on  one  side  of  the  same  a  strip  5  or 
6  feet  wide,  sodded,  and  then  a  sidewalk  equal  in  width  to  one- 
eighth  the  width  of  the  roadway.  The  intervening  strip  above 
mentioned  is  planted  with  trees,  and  at  intervals  of  200  to  250  feet 
furnishes  storage  places,  30  or  40  long,  for  the  materials  used  in 


ROADS.  305 

the  road  repairs.  The  width  of  first,  serond  and  third  class  road- 
ways may  be  given  as  26,  i8£  and  13  feet,  with  a  tendency  during 
the  last  ten  years  to  have  none,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  cities,  wider 
than  24  feet,  and  the  rest  correspondingly  narrower.  In  view  of 
the  changes  constantly  going  on  in  this  country  in  the  value  and 
settlement  of  land,  it  would  probably  be  well  always  to  lay  out  a 
road  50  or  60  feet  wide,  but  to  build  the  road  proper  of  the  width 
above  indicated. 

TABLE  II. 


1 

a 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 
7 
8 

KINDS  OF  EARTH. 

IN  PARTS  OF  A  LABORER'S 
DAY'S  WAGES. 

fc  ** 

^•c 

«t 

•o  o. 

« 

o 

z% 

n 

IB 
12 

A 

Cost  per  cubic  yard 
to  loosen. 

Cost  per  cubic  yard 
to  load  in  wheel- 
barrows. 

Cost  per  cubic  yard 
to  load  in  carts  or 
wagons. 

Loose  earths,  which  are  loam,  sand,  etc.,  inclu- 
sive of  loading  

»t 

5-5'* 

»?r* 

i 

& 

A 

* 

A 

A 
A 

* 

.i 

Heavier  earths,  such  as  stick  v  clay,  which  does 
not  readily  leave  the  shovel,  etc  
Earths  which  must  be  loosened  with  a  pick  be- 
fore they  may  be  shoveled  

Solid  banks  of  gravel  or  clav,  earths  contain- 
ing boulders,  etc.,  in  which  one  man  only 
loosens  as  much  as  another  man  shovels  
Same  material,  worst  kind,  brick  and  mortar 
heaps,  earth  full  of  roots,  etc.,  in  which  it 
takes   two   men   to    loosen    what   one   man 
shovels.  .  .  . 

To  break  up  stone  which  is  in  layers  or  seams, 
requiring  the  use  of  the  crowbar  only,  but  no 
blasting  

Blasting  rocks  in  an  open  cut,  according  to  the 
hardness  of  the  rock,  to  the  position  of  the 
seams  etc.*  

In  forming  and  shaping  embankments 

*  To  excavate  rock  to  a  given  line  and  level— that  is,  to  trim  a  cutting  may  cost 
double  these  figures  per  yard. 

With  all  these  rules  and  data  in  mind,  the  real  work  of  actually 
laying  out  the  road  en  the  ground  and  on  a  map  is  next  in  order, 
and  this  comes  so  entirely  within  the  province  of  the  civil  engineer, 
and  is  a  matter  requiring  so  much  explanation  and  study,  that  it 
cannot  well  be  introduced  within  the  limits  of  this  treatise.  It  is  in 
this  part  of  the  work  that  a  little  skill  and  labor  well  spent  may  be 
productive  of  very  great  saving  in  the  cost  of  the  whole  work,  and 
it  should  not  be  left  to  the  inexperienced  or  unskillful.* 

*  Gillispie,  i  s  treatise  on  •'  Roads  and  Railroads,"  gives  two  forcible 
instances  of  the  amount  those  roads  which  might  properly  be  called  chance 
roads,  can  be  improved  by  a  road-maker  of  skill  and  understanding.  An 
old  road  in  Anglesea,  England,  rose  and  fell  between  its  two  extremities, 
24  miles  apart,  a  total  perpendicular  amount  of  3,540  feet ;  while  a  new 


ROADS. 

Making  the  Road-bed, — Under  this  head  are  included  earth- 
works, drains,  culverts,  bridges,  stay  walls,  etc.,  etc.,  all  matters 
requiring  a  special  kind  of  skill  to  construct  properly.  The  writer 
believes  it  impracticable  to  write  a  book  which  shall  at  once  be 
interesting  to  and  therefore  valued  by  the  public,  and  of  value  to 
the  professional  man,  and  thinks  an  attempt  so  to  do  results  always 
in  a  failure  in  both  directions.  True  to  the  determination  expressed 
in  the  introduction,  he  proposes,  therefore,  to  treat  under  this  head 
mainly  with  those  parts  of  the  subject  in  which  the  public  at  large 
is  most  interested,  for  example,  the  data  for  the  cost  of  earthworks, 
general  information  relating  to  drainage,  bridges,  etc. 

Earthwor^ — The  basis  of  all  values  is  the  daily  wages  of  a 
common  unskilled  laborer,  and  in  the  data  given  below,  this  figure, 
whatever  it  is  from  time  to  time  and  in  various  places, must  betaken 
as  unity,  or  the  standard  measure. 

The  cost  of  earthworks  may  be  divided  into  three  parts:  (i) 
cost  of  loosening  the  earth,  (2)  cost  of  transport,  and  (3)  cost  of 
forming  the  transported  earth  into  the  desired  shape.  The  cost  of 
the  first  part  depends  materially  on  the  kind  of  earth  to  be  handled. 
The  cost  of  the  second,  mainly  on  the  distance  the  earth  is  to  be 
moved. 

We  find  by  experience  that  in  digging  and  loading  or  throwing 
T^  feet  horizontally  with  a  shovel,  we  obtain  for  different  materials 
the  results  of  Table  II. 

TRANSPORT    OF    EARTH. 

Throwing  with  a  Shovel. — This  is  to  be  done  only  from  T5^  feet 
in  distance  or  from  |-  feet  vertically.  To  throw  5  feet  vertically 

road,  laid  out  by  Telford  between  the  same  points,  rose  and  fell  only  2,257 
feet,  so  that  1,283  feet  of  perpendicular  height  is  now  done  away  with, 
which  every  horse  passing  over  the  road  had  previously  been  obliged  to 
ascend  and  descend  with  its  load.  The  new  road  is  besides  two  miles 
shorter.  The  other  case  is  that  of  a  plank-road  built  in  the  State  of  New 
York,  between  the  villages  of  Cazenovia  and  Chittenango,  Both  these 
villages  are  situated  on  Chittenango  Creek,  the  former  being  800  feet  higher 
than  the  latter.  The  most  level  common  road  between  these  villages  rose, 
however,  more  than  1,200  feet  in  going  from  Chittenango  to  Cazenovia,  and 
rises  more  than  400  feet  in  going  from  Cazenovia  to  Chittenango,  in  spite 
of  this  latter  place  being  800  feet  lower.  That  is,  it  rises  400  feet  where 
there  should  be  a  continual  descent.  The  line  of  the  plank-road  laid  ou 
by  George  Geddes,  civil  engineer,  ascends  only  the  necessary  800  feet  in 
one  direction,  and  has  no  ascents  in  the  other,  with  two  or  three  trifling 
exceptions  of  a  few  feet  in  all,  admitted  in  order  to  save  expense.  The  scenes 
of  similar  possible  improvements  are  scattered  all  over  this  and  the  rest  of 
the  States  ;  and  these  facts  are  still  more  or  equally  to  be  borne  in  mind  in 
laying  out  new  roads,  where  the  ounce  of  prevention  may  take  the  place  of 
the  pound  of  cure. 


ROADS. 


307 


costs  as  much  as  12  feet  horizontally,  that  is  to  say,  if  30  feet  hori 
zontally  cost  per  cubic  yard  one  day's  wages,  at  8.4,  the  same  dis- 
tance vertically  will  cost  about  2^  times  as  much,  or  more  exactly,  one 
day's  wages  divided  by  3.5,  whence  is  seen  the  economy  of  using 
windlasses,  etc.,  instead  of  "stages,"*  in  shoveling  earth  vertically. 
Table  III.  gives  the  cost  of  shoveling  earth  certain  distances, 
expressed  in  the  number  of  cubic  yards  a  laborer's  day's  wages  will 
pay  for. 

TABLE  III. 


! 

Number  of  cubic 

Whether  done  at 

yards  which  can 

Distance  of 
throw,  in  feet. 

Vertical  or   hori- 
zontal. 

one  operation  or 
by  means  of  so- 

be    transported 
at  the  cost  of  one 

Remarks. 

called  "stages." 

laborer's    day's 

*    - 

wages. 

0-10, 

Horizontally, 

No  "  stages." 

23-5 

10-20, 

" 

i  stage. 

12.6 

)   Wheelbar- 

20-30, 

« 

2  stages. 

8.4 

)  row  cheaper 

o-5, 

Vertically, 

No  stages. 

14.1 

5-io, 

i  stage. 

8.8 

Wheelbarrows.  —  The  usual  distance  of  transport  suitable  for  the 
use  of  wheelbarrows  is  £fg-  feet.  In  exceptional  cases  it  may  be 
more,  but  perhaps  never  above  500  feet,  and  then  only  for  moderate 
quantities.  In  going  up  hill,  the  greatest  inclination  is  to  be  not 
more  than  i  in  10,  and  a  man  can  push  only  2/z  as  much  on  this 
inclination  as  on  a  level.  Three  feet  vertical  transport  costs 
as  much  as  £fa  feet  horizontally.  Whenever  possible,  planks  should 
be  laid  for  the  wheelbarrows  to  run  on.  The  best  timber  for  this 
purpose  is  beech-wood,  and  the  cost  of  keeping  such  planks  is  only 
about  ^  or  -^  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  transport  per  cubic  yard. 
See  Table  IV. 

Patent  Portable  Railroad  and  Hand  Cars.  —  These  have  lately 
been  introduced  in  this  country  and  appear  to  be  coming  into  gen- 
eral use  and  favor.  The  company  owning  this  improvement,  as  it 
seems  to  have  a  right  to  be  called,  claim  that  by  means  of  their  track 
and  cars,  which  can  be  used  everywhere  that  a  wheelbarrow  or  a 
horse-cart  can  go,  and  in  a  great  many  places  where  these  vehicles 
cannot  go,  they  effect  a  very  large  saving,  as  much  in  some  cases  as 
five-sixths  of  the  cost  by  the  other  means  of  transport.  There  are 
no  data  published  as  yet  to  make  tables  from  similar  to  the  fore- 
going; from  the  company's  pamphlet,  however,  one  given  case 
which  occurred  on  Staten  Island  in  1867,  may  be  analyzed  as  in 
Table  V. 


*  By  a  "stage"  is  meant  the  operation  of  one  shoveler  lifting  and  throw- 
ing what  another  has  thrown  in  front  of  him. 


ROADS. 

TABLE  IV. 


DISTANCE    OF 
TRANSPORT, 
IN  FEET. 

Number  of  trips  per 
day    of   ten    hours, 
made  with  one  man 
at  barrow,  and  one 
to  load. 

Contents    of    wheel  - 
barrow  load  in  cu- 
bic feet. 

Number     of      cubic 
yards  which  can  be 
transported   at   the 
cost  of  one  laborer's 
day's  wages. 

IO-2O 

1  2O 
no 

100 

98 
96 

94 
92 
90 
88 
86 
84 
82 
80 

* 

H 

3 

*| 

2] 

2J 

2] 
2] 

'.    *            2], 
*l 
2a 

23,5 
16.9 
14.4 
13-8 
13-3 

12.8 

12.4 

12.0 

ii.  6 

II.  2 
10.9 
10.5 
10  2 

2O-5O 

50-70..     
70-100  
IOO-I5O  

I5O-2OO    .  . 

2OO-25O         

25O-3OO  

3OO-35O  

35O-4OO 

400-450    

45O-5OO  

500-550  

TABLE  V. 

Distance  of  transport,  in  feet 550 

Number  of  trips  per  day  of  ten  hours,  with  one  man 

at  two  cars,  and  two  to  load  150 

Contents  of  car  in  cubic  feet n .  34 

Number  of  cubic  yards  which  can  be  transported  at 

the  cost  of  one  laborer's  day's  wages 60 

One-Horse  Carts. — The  table  for  this  kind  of  transport  may  be 
stated  about  as  follows :  i  foot  vertical  costs  as  much  as  14  hori- 
zontal. See  Table  VI. 

TABLE  VI. 


DISTANCE  OF  TRANS- 
PORT IN  FEET. 

Number  of  trips  made 
per  day  of  ten  hours, 
assuming  only  four 
minutes     to      load, 
dump,  etc.,  per  trip. 

Contents  of  cart 
load  in  cubic 
feet. 

Number  of  cubic  yards 
which  can  be  trans- 
ported   at    the    cost 
of  a  laborer's  day's 
wages. 

300  

86 

8 

I7.I 

500  

67 

8 

13  6 

At. 

8 

8  6 

1,500  

TI 

8 

6  4 

2,000  

25 

8 

5.0 

2,500  

21 

8 

4.3 

3,000  

18 

8 

3  6 

Ox-cart  transport  is  10  or  12  per  cent,  cheaper  than  the  above, 
but  takes  more  time. 

Other  methods  of  transport,  such  as  horses  or  engines  on  tem- 
porary tracts  would  hardly  ever  be  applied  to  road-building,  but 
belong  more  properly  under  the  head  of  railroad  construction. 


ROADS.  3°9 

Shrinkage. — In  calculating  the  cost  of  earth-works,  the  so-called 
shrinkage  of  earth  must  not  be  overlooked.  Earth  occupies  on  the 
average  one-tenth  less  space  in  embankment  than  it  did  in  its  natural 
state,  100  cubic  yards  shrinking  into  90.  Rock,  on  the  contrary, 
occupies  more  space  when  broken,  its  bulk  increasing  by  about  one- 
half.  The  shrinkage  of  gravelly  earth  and  sand  may  be  taken  at  8, 
of  clay  10,  loam  12,  surface  soil  15,  and  of  "puddled  "  clay  25  per 
cent.  The  increase  of  bulk  of  rock  is  40  to  60  per  cent. 

To  make  use  of  all  these  data  in  calculating  the  probable  cost 
of  a  piece  of  road,  there  is  of  course  still  wanting  the  equally 
essential  factor  which  gives  the  number  of  cubic  yards  to  be  dug 
and  moved  and  the  distance  of  transport.  These  are  got  from  the 
plan,  profile  and  cross-sections  of  the  proposed  work,  an  engineer's 
knowledge  being  requisite  to  make  the  necessary  drawings  and  cal- 
culations. 

Drains  and  Culverts. — The  drainage  of  roads  is  of  two  kinds, 
surface  and  sub-drainage.  The  first  provides  for  a  speedy  removal 
of  the  rain-fall  on  the  surface  of  the  road  and  the  cutting  and  em- 
bankments on  which  it  is  carried  ;  the  second,  for  the  removal  of 
that  part  of  the  rain-fall  which  nevertheless  does  penetrate  into  the 
body  of  the  road  covering.  With  a  perfect  sub-drainage  the  winter's 
frost,  having  no  water  to  act  upon  within  the  body  of  the  road,  is 
robbed  of  its  great  power  to  destroy  the  same,  and  it  also  prevents 
the  road  surface  from  becoming  soaked  and  thence  destroyed  in  the 
summer.  The  need  of  surface  drainage  is  self-evident.  This  last 
named  is  to  be  provided  for  at  this  stage  of  the  building  of  the 
road,  the  sub-drainage  being  more  properly  a  part  of  the  building 
of  the  road  covering  or  top.  For  this  purpose  ditches,  one  on  each 
side  generally,  are  absolutely  necessary,  both  when  the  road  is  on  a 
level  with  the  surrounding  country  and  when  it  is  in  a  cutting. 
They  may  become  necessary  also  in  the  case  of  embankments  ;  for 
example,  when  an  embankment  is  built  across  low  ground.  Where 
these  side  ditches  cross  under  the  embankment  we  have  a  culvert ; 
also  whenever  any  small  valley,  having  a  constant  or  intermittent 
stream  of  water,  is  crossed  by  such  an  embankment.  It  is  very  bad 
policy  to  make  such  culverts  of  wood,  unless  indeed  they  are  so 
situated  as  to  be  constantly  under  water ;  the  cost  of  replacing 
them  after  the  embankment  and  road  has  been  built  over  them  is 
disproportionately  great.  They  should  be  made  of  stone  or  brick ; 
lately,  cement  drain-pipe,  oval  or  egg-shaped,  has  been  used  to  ad- 
vantage in  their  construction. 

All  ditches,  drains  and  culverts  should  have  a  fall  throughout 
their  entire  length.  Their  size  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of 
water  they  may  be  expected  to  carry,  and  this  again  on  the  rain-fall 


310  ROADS. 

that  may  occur  on  the  area  which  they  drain.  Extraordinary  show- 
ers have  occurred  of  two  inches  in  half  an  hour,  but  only  over  a 
very  limited  area,  and  two  inches  in  an  hour  may  be  taken  as  a 
large  allowance.  This  is  the  basis  of  the  Central  Park  drainage 
calculation,  and  is  larger  than  usually  taken — none  too  large,  how- 
ever, for  safety. 

The  determination  of  the  proper  width  and  height  of  culverts, 
that  will  enable  them  to  pass  the  requisite  quantity  of  water  without 
damming  it  up,  is  a  question  in  practical  hydraulics,  easily  enough 
settled,  in  cases  of  doubt,  by  the  proper  gaugings  and  observations 
made  upon  the  spot,  but  which  is  answered  only  in  a  very  crude 
and  imperfect  manner  by  any  general  rules  that  may  be  given.  And 
yet  it  may  prove  a  very  important  question  at  times.  There  is  now 
(1877)  pending  in  Massachusetts,  a  suit  for  damages  that  may  in- 
volve claims  to  the  amount  of  about  half  a  million  dollars,  in  which 
one  great  center  of  attraction  is  nothing  but  a  simple  railroad  cul- 
vert, and  the  question  :  Was  it  as  large  as  it  ought  to  have  been  ? 
and  the  writer  passes  every  day,  when  home,  by  a  culvert  which  for 
some  150  or  200  years  has  dammed  the  waters  of  a  brook  back 
about  three  miles,  from  one  foot  to  say  20  inches  at  the  culvert, 
vertically,  and  done  this  right  along  two  or  three  times  per  annum ; 
and  at  the  present  time  it  contributes  in  this  manner,  more  than  its 
proper  share  towards  the  flooding  of  about  500  cellars.  These  two 
cases  may  serve  to  call  attention  to  the  great  damage  that  may 
accrue  from  making  culverts  too  small,  and  show  whence  comes  the 
rule  :  in  cases  of  doubt,  make  the  culvert  plenty  large  enough.  The 
following  rough  and  approximate  rules  for  determining  the  quantity 
of  water  that  a  culvert  will  be  called  upon  to  pass  through  it,  are 
taken  from  a  German  pocket-book  for  road  engineers.  Compute 
the  cubic  feet  per  second  from  the  drainage  area  that  lies  above  the 
culvert,  and  for  the  different  lenghts  of  valley  from  the  correspond- 
ing rain-falls  per  hour  (the  rain-fall  is  given  in  inches  per  hour,  in- 
stead of  in  decimals  of  a  foot  per  second,  only  for  the  purpose  of 
avoiding  the  printing  of  long  decimals). 

Length  of  Valley  in  Miles.  Inches  Per  Hour. 

2.5  or  less 1.2 

2.5  to  5  0.75 

5-     "    7-5 0.45 

7.5  "    10 , 0.30 

10 .  or  more 0.15 

As  culverts  grow  larger  and  wider,  with  the  amount  of  water 
they  are  to  pass  under  the  road,  they  develop  finally  into 

Bridges. — Bridge-building  is  a  life's  study,  taken  by  itself,  and  in 
some  of  its  parts  it  is  not  half  appreciated  and  known  as  yet  among 


ROADS.  311 

the  public.  Prominent  among  these  is  beauty  of  design  and  appro- 
priateness to  the  situation.  ^There  is,  perhaps,  nothing  else  that  will 
so  much  improve  the  appearance  and  attractiveness  of  a  road  as  a 
beautiful  bridge.  So  also  in  cities  we  find  that  a  street  will  of  its 
own  accord,  seemingly,  improve  in  appearance  when  a  good  and 
handsome  bridge  has  been  erected  on  its  line,  the  owners  and 
builders  of  the  adjoining  buildings  taking  the  bridge  for  their  pat- 
tern and  model.  Nor  must  it  be  supposed  that  a  handsome  bridge 
must  necessarily  cost  more  than  an  inappropriate  or  homely,  uncouth 
structure  ;  it  need  never  be  the  case.  Very  often  the  chief  beauty 
of  a  structure  lies  in  the  fact  of  its  carrying  the  most  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  material.  No  one  bridge  is  proper  in  every  situation, 
and  herein  many  mistakes  are  made.  The  correct  way  to  build  a 
good  bridge  is  the  same  or  a  similar  way  to  that  followed  in  first- 
class  buildings — namely,  to  have  plans  drawn  for  the  same,  and 
receive  estimates  and  offers  to  build  according  to  these  plans.  It 
is  not  well  to  allow  the  offices  of  designer,  superintendent  and  con- 
tractor to  be  united  in  one  person  or  firm,  and  is  expecting  too 
much  from  human  nature. 

Making  the  Road  Surface. — There  are  two  subordinate  kinds  of 
road  surface,  if  the  term  road  can  properly  be  applied  to  them — 
namely,  that  of  foot  and  riding  paths  ;  these  may  be  disposed  of 
first,  before  proceeding  to  the  more  important  consideration  of  the 
road  surfaces  proper,  those  used  by  vehicles  of  all  descriptions. 

Footpaths. — For  the  surface  of  a  footpath  little  solidity  is  neces- 
sary, except  in  city  sidewalks,  which  are  not  supposed  to  be  treated 
of  here  ;  but  we  do  need  a  material  that  shall  become  and  stay  com- 
pact soon  after  it  is  laid.  Coarse  sand,  screened  gravel,  stone  chips 
and  dust,  make  good  paths  ;  should  these  materials  be  too  free  from 
any  earth  or  clay,  a  little  of  the  same  may  often  be  added  to  advan- 
tage to  act  as  a  binding  material.  Wherever  the  ground  underneath 
the  surfacing  is  not  porous  or  likely  to  remain  porous  enough  to  let 
all  the  water  that  may  soak  through  drain  away,  a  layer  of  such 
porous  material  must  be  filled  up  before  the  top  surface  is  put  on. 
Oyster  shells,  or  large  stone  chips,  gravel  stones  or  pebbles,  etc., 
make  a  good  foundation  of  this  sort.  The  top  covering  should  have 
a  slope,  best  in  both  directions  from  the  center  of  the  path  towards 
each  side  of  about  i  in  16  ;  the  thickness  of  the  foundation  course 
to  be  3  to  5,  and  that  of  the  top  3  to  4  inches.  No  gravel  path,  or 
sidewalk,  will  afford  good  walking  at  the  season  of  the  year  when 
the  frost  is  coming  out  of  the  ground.  Carting  on  more  gravel  is  in 
vain;  it  often  is  no  better  than  mere  foolishness.  If  village  commu- 
nities will  get  this  idea  firmly  into  their  minds,  and,  instead  of  a 
fruitless  struggle  against  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  gravel,  will  build 


312  ROADS. 

stone  screening  sidewalks,  with  a  good  foundation  course  underneath, 
as  above  described,  or  else  some  sort  of  hard  sidewalk  covering, 
they  will  save  themselves  much  expense,  many  muddy  feet,  and  no 
small  amount  of  consequent  and  annual  discontent,  not  to  say  pro- 
fanity and  ill  feeling.  Heavy  rolling  will  save  much  time  in  finishing 
the  whole  process ;  the  roller  should  be  used  unsparingly  and 
throughout  the  whole  construction  of  the  path,  on  the  foundation  as 
well  as  on  the  top. 


Riding- Paths. — From  the  nature  of  the  travel  these  are  intended 
to  accommodate,  their  surface  is  of  a  peculiar  nature.  Inasmuch  as 
a  horse,  in  galloping,  tends  to  throw  the  soil  he  treads  on  backwards 
with  his  hind  feet,  the  surface  must  be  kept  somewhat  loose  and  soft 
to  make  riding  on  it  easy  and  agreeable.  This  requirement  makes 
it  impossible  to  have  any  slope  on  the  surface  (the  loose  material 
would  wash  away  if  there  were  any),  and  hence  we  must  rely  here 
wholly  on  sub-drainage,  and  not  attempt  any  surface  drainage.  The 
top  is  made  of  coarse  sand,  free  from  clay  or  other  binding  material, 
laid  on  two  and  one-half  to  three  and  one-half  inches  thick,  and 
spread  out  level.  Under  this  is  a  solid  foundation,  about  four  inches 
thick,  made  of  coarse  gravel  and  clay,  and  having  a  slope  of  about 
1.20,  so  that  the  water  will  run  off  along  its  top  surface  to  either 
side,  where  it  must  further  be  disposed  of  by  drains  or  ditches.  In 
case  of  riding-paths  too  wide  to  be  so  simply  built,  Figure  3  shows 
the  method  to  be  used.  The  foundation  is  made  in  several  slopes, 
at  the  lowest  parts  of  which  are  placed  drains,  running  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  path,  but  communicating  from  time  to  time  with  the  side 
ditches  or  drains.  Should,  however,  the  ground  underneath  be 
porous  enough,  the  drains  may  be  dispensed  with;  and  if  in  their 
stead  holes  be  dug  along  the  lowest  lines,  marked  a  a,  and  these 
filled  with  large  stone,  the  water  will,  through  them,  drain  away 
into  the  ground. 

Roads. — To  make  a  gocd  road  surface  is  a  very  simple  operation 
after  it  is  only  once  understood,  and  the  fundamental  principles 
thereof  once  comprehended  they  can  hardly  be  forgotten.  Every- 
thing connected  with  the  construction,  the  use  and  maintenance  of 
roads,  was,  in  times  past,  before  the  invention  of  railways,  the  sub- 
ject of  exact  observations  and  experiments,  many  and  varied  in  their 
character.  Old  engineering  works  that  treat  of  road  making  are 
excellent  reading  upon  this  subject  at  the  present  day  ;  upon  road 
construction,  and,  no  less,  upon  the  need  of  better  road  legislation. 
Some,  perhaps  the  most,  of  the  evils  we  suffer  in  the  shape  of  bad 


ROADS.  313 

common  roads,  are  merely  the  result,  the  necessary  consequence,  of  our 
bad  systems  of  common  road  management,  which  are  derived  from 
our  antiquated  legislation  upon  that  subject.  Legislation  of  this 
kind  has  changed  but  little  in  a  hundred  years,  and  is  producing  the 
same  evils  to-day  that  it  did  a  hundred  years  ago.  Hence  it  is 
explainable,  that  the  complaints  concerning  bad  roads,  and  bad  road 
management  which  we  read  in  books,  of  fifty  and  sixty  years  ago, 
sound  to  our  astonished  ears  as  though  they  had  been  written  but 
yesterday.  On  this  subject  may  be  consulted  :  The  life  of  Telford, 
the  great  English  road  builder,  who  died  some  fifty  years  ago  ;  (also 
among  "  The  Lives  of  the  Engineers,"  by  Samuel  Smiles).  Besides 
this,  we  have  the  results  of  a  great  number  of  years  of  experience  in 
older  countries,  and  there  would  seem  to  be  little  to  invent,  but 
much  to  learn,  in  this  branch  of  construction.  Though  less  pro- 
gressive than  other  branches,  there  are,  nevertheless,  improvements 
in  road-making,  especially  in  road-making  machinery  and  tools;  and 
r.o  treatise  on  this  or  any  other  living  subject  can  be  considered 
complete  a  very  few  years  after  it  is  written. 

Ancient  roads  were  made  with  a  surface  as  nearly  resembling 
the  solid  rock  as  possible.  So,  in  China,  roads  were  made  of  huge 
granite  blocks  laid  on  immovable  foundations.  In  time  these  became 
worn  with  ruts,  especially  in  the  joints  or  seams  of  the  stones,  and 
the  surface  generally  so  smooth  that  animals  could  hardly  stand,  far 
less  trot  on  it.  They  are  now  for  the  most  part  deserted,  and  left  to 
be  covered  up  bv  land-slides,  etc.,  to  one  side  of  the  new  roads  of 
travel. 

The  invention  of  McAdam  consisted  in  having  no  large  stone  at 
all  on  the  roadway,  but  having  it  all  pounded  into  small  fragments  and 
spread  over  the  road-bed.  This  has,  without  fear  of  efficient  contradic- 
tion or  shadow  of  doubt,  been  proved  by  trial  to  be  a  worthless  pro- 
ceeding, though  at  one  time  popular,  and  even  now  only  too  often 
done,  either  from  ignorance  or  laziness.  The  separate  fragments  of 
stone,  having  no  bond  among  themselves,  are  liable  to  sink  into  the 
underlying  ground  or  road-bed,  evenly  or  unevenly  as  it  may  chance, 
more  in  one  place  than  in  another,  and  thus  never  come  to  rest  or 
to  an  even  top  surface.  Between  these  two  extremes  of  an  ancient 
Chinese  solid  rock  road  and  that  of  McAdam,  lies  the  true  principle 
of  road-making,  which  consists  in  giving  every  road  two  component 
parts  ;  one — the  foundation, — to  be  solid,  unyielding,  porous,  and  of 
large  material  ;  the  other — the  top  surface, — to  be  made  up  of  lighter 
material,  and  to  be  made  to  bind  compactly  and  evenly  over  the 
rough  foundation.  This  constitutes  the  whole  principle  to  be  fol- 
lowed; and,  let  it  be  repeated,  that  to  dump  the  road  material  directly 
on  the  ground,  without  first  preparing  a  foundation  for  it,  as  is  so 


314  ROADS. 

frequently  done,  is  a  waste  of  time,  labor  and  materials,  by  no  possi- 
bility resulting  in  a  good  road.  On  this  one  fundamental  idea, 
which  is  never  abandoned,  however,  there  are  a  number  of  variations. 
Besides  these  roads,  whose  characteristics  is  the  foundation  they  are 
all  built  on,  we  have  paved  roads,  or  pavements,  of  a  great  many 
kinds,  and  roads  with  track-ways,  also  of  various  kinds. 

Foundation  Roads. — The  roads  of  this  kind,  with  macadam  for 
the  top  surface,  are  called  Telford  roads  by  English  writers,  from 
Telford,  who  first  built  them  in  England.  The  Central  Park  "  gravel 
roads  "  belong  under  this  head,  gravel  taking  the  place  of  the  macadam 
of  the  Telford  roads.  These  foundation  roads  are  of  far  greater  im- 
portance than  any  other  kind  for  State,  county  or  town  roads,  also 
for  parks  and  driveways.  The  top  surface  of  all  these  roads  must 
have  a  certain  inclination  to  cause  efficient  surface  drainage.  Various 
authorities  give  various  rules  for  the  amount  of  this  inclination  or 
side-slope.  It  would  seem  just  that  it  should  depend  on  the  nature 
of  the  top  covering,  being  less  for  more  solid  than  for  looser  or 
softer  materials,  and  also  on  the  grade  of  the  road. 

In  Baden,  one  of  the  smaller  German  States,  but  which  is  worthy 
to  be  taken  as  a  model  in  matters  of  road  building,  and  in  France, 
the  rise  at  the  center  is  given  as  ^VrV  °f  tne  width  of  the  road, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  material ;  that  is,  inclinations  of  i  in 
20,  and  i  in  30.  The  rules  in  Prussia  prescribe  inclinations  of  i 
in  24  for  roads  falling  more  than  4  in  a  hundred  ;  i  in  18  for  roads 
on  a  grade  of  between  2  and  4  in  a  hundred  ;  and  i  in  12  for  those 
on  a  grade  of  less  than  2  in  a  hundred.  When  first  built  the  center 
should  be  made  some  four  inches  too  high  to  allow  for  after  settling. 


Macadam  Top. — The  cross  section  of  such  a  road  is  shown  in 
Fig.  4  ;  the  thickness  of  the  foundation  b  =  a,  the  thickness  of  the 
top  covering  at  the  center,  and  is  six,  four  or  five  and  three  and  one- 
half  inches  in  thickness  for  first,  second  and  third  class  roads.  If 
the  stone  for  the  foundation — for  which  most  anything  will  do,  and 
that  kind  should  be  taken  which  is  cheapest  to  procure — happens  to 
be  got  out  cheapest  in  larger  pieces  than  the  above  dimensions,  it 
will  do  no  harm.  This  foundation  course  is  sometimes  set  so  as  to 
present  an  inclination  on  top,  and  the  cover  then  put  on  of  a  uniform 
thickness  over  the  whole  breadth.  This  is  perhaps  best,  but  is  some- 
what more  expensive.  It  will  do,  in  nearly  all  cases,  to  set  the 
foundation  course  on  a  level,  or  as  near  so  as  the  stones  will  allow, 


ROADS.  315 

and  then  make  the  top  crowning,  by  making  the  covering  say  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  or  aa  inch  less  thick  at  the  edges  than  in  the 
center.  The  stones  forming  the  foundation  should  not  be  set  in 
rows,  nor  ever  laid  on  their  flat  sides,  but  set  up  on  edge  and  made 
to  break  joints  as  much  as  possible  ;  that  is,  set  up  irregularly.  After 
they  are  set  up,  the  points  that  project  above  the  general  level  may 
be  broken  off,  and  the  interstices  generally  filled  with  small  stone. 
More  or  less  care  and  work  are  necessary  in  this  part  of  the  opera- 
tion, according  to  the  importance  of  the  road  and  the  depth  and 
character  of  the  material  used  for  the  top  covering.  To  roll  the 
road  at  this  stage  is  to  be  recommended  ;  afterwards  it  becomes  a 
requisite.  The  point  never  to  be  lost  sight  of,  is  that  this  founda- 
tion course  must  remain  porous,  must  be  pervious  to  water,  so  that 
all  rain-water  that  shall  soak  through  the  top  covering  will  find, 
through  it,  means  of  escape  to  the  ground  underneath  ;  thence,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  it  is  left  either  to  soak  into  the 
ground  or  must  be  further  led  away  by  appropriate  drains. 

Road  Covering. — Of  very  great  importance  is  the  material  used 
for  the  top  or  road  covering.  In  the  order  of  their  value  for 
macadam,  we  have:  I.  Basalt.  II.  Syenite  and  Granite.  III. 
Limestones.  IV.  Sandstones. 

It  will  be  evident  that  a  very  much  greater  quantity  of  the  soft 
stones  would  be  required  to  repair  a  certain  road,  than  of  a  harder 
kind,  and  on  a  road  lying  out  of  the  way  of  a  hard-stone  quarry  or 
deposit,  the  question  will  arise  which  is  cheapest,  to  pay  more  for 
the  raw  material  and  get  good  stock,  or  pay  less  and  use  the  worse. 
There  have  been  some  interesting  results  in  places  where  this  mat- 
ter has  been  the  subject  of  experiment,  continued  for  a  number  of 
years.  Thus,  on  a  road  in  Baden  which  was  formerly  macadamized 
with  rock  costing  only  fifty  cents  per  cubic  yard,  it  was  finally  found 
cheaper  to  take  harder  rock  from  a  distance,  costing  $1.78  per  cubic 
yard,  the  saving  being  both  in  less  quantity  of  material  used  and  less 
labor  required  in  repairs.  Just  where  the  limit  is  must  be  found  in 
each  case  by  long  continued  experiment,  which  it  is  well  worth  the 
trouble  to  make,  both  to  save  expense  and  also  to  have  the  best  pos- 
sible road,  the  harder  material  making  a  road  better  at  all  times,  at 
the  same  or  less  cost.  After  the  right  kind  has  been  determined, 
none  other  should  be  mixed  with  it,  and  should  any  inferior  piece 
accidentally  or  designedly  get  into  the  stock  to  be  broken  up,  it 
should  be  picked  out  and  thrown  aside.  The  stone  is  broken  up 
into  macadam,  either  by  hand  or  machinery.  Wherever  any  consid- 
erable quantity  of  macadam  is  in  present  or  future  demand,  a  stone- 
breaker  is  certainly  a  saving  over  hand  labor,  though  it  is  difficult  to 
draw  the  line  exactly,  where  hand-labor  or  machine-labor  is  cheapest. 


316  ROADS. 

Probably  no  town  that  pretends  to  keep  thirty  or  forty  miles  of 
road  in  good  repair  ought  to  be  without  one  of  these  labor-saving 
machines.  Those  most  in  use  are  made  by  Blake  Bros.,  of  New 
Haven,  Conn. 

When  broken  by  hand  and  for  country  roads,  the  stones  should 
be  broken  on  the  storage  places  already  mentioned,  which  are  to  be 
established  along  the  side  of  the  road  every  200  to  250  feet.  The 
laborer  is  not  to  pound  the  stones  on  a  heap  of  such,  but  to  use  one 
large  stone  as  a  sort  of  anvil  to  break  the  others  on.  He  is  to  use  a 
light  hammer,  except  for  pieces  containing  more  than  four  or  five 
cubic  feet,  and  may  use  a  ring  with  a  handle  attached  to  hold  the 
stone  he  desires  to  break. 

In  order  that  the  road  shall  get  an  even  surface  the  macadam 
must  all  be  of  one  size,  and  the  proper  size  for  the  macadam  depends 
on  the  degree  of  hardness  of  the  rock.  If  too  small  it  turns  to  dust, 
if  too  large  the  top  will  not  pack  even.  The  size  is  regulated  by  the 
use  of  a  ring  as  a  guage — every  stone  being  obliged  to  be  capable 
of  falling  through  this  ring  in  any  direction  it  may  be  dropped. 
Hard  stones  should  be  i  to  ij,  softer  ones  ij,  and  the  softest  2 
inches  in  diameter.  Larger  sizes  give  less  perfect  roads.  In  load- 
ing and  otherwise  handling  macadam,  a  many  and  close-pronged 
pitchfork  should  be  used  instead  of  a  shovel,  so  as  not  to  mix  in  any 
earth  or  sand  and  to  sift  out  the  stone  dust  and  chips. 

The  macadam  being  properly  prepared  and  loaded  up,  it  is 
spread  over  the  foundation  in  two  or  three  successive  layers.  Each 
layer  should  be  rolled,  but  the  top  and  last  one  must  be  rolled  to 
make  a  good  road.  Nor  will  rolling  alone  do  the  work.  Two  other 
helps  are  needed:  the  use  of  a  binding  material,  to  act  as  a  cement 
between  the  broken  stone,  and  sprinkling.  It  is  difficult  to  prescribe 
in  words  just  what  to  use  as  binding  material,  and  just  how  much  to 
sprinkle  and  roll;  common  sense  will  in  most  cases  be  a  safe  enough 
guide.  In  the  macadamized  streets  of  Paris  the  rule  is  to  roll  till  a 
single  piece  of  macadam,  placed  under  the  roller,  will  be  crushed  with- 
out being  pressed  into  the  road  surface.  Gravel  somewhat  mixed 
with  clay  by  nature,  but  not  too  much,  is  probably  best  as  a  binding 
material.  Clean  coarse  sand  is  very  good.  Other  substances  will 
do,  where  it  would  cost  too  much  to  procure  either  of  the  above. 

A  late  writer  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Civil  Engineers 
and  Architects,  at  Hanover,  calls  attention  to  the  practice  in  Bohemia 
of  making  foundation  roads  by  setting  first  the  foundation  course, 
spreading  a  thin  layer  of  the  binding  material  on  that,  and  the 
broken  stone  on  top  of  this  again.  The  subsequent  rolling  has  the 
effect  of  forcing  the  binding  material,  slowly  and  gradually,  from 
beneath,  upwards  into  and  through  the  broken  stone.  The  writer 


ROADS.  317 

states  that  he  himself  has  tried  a  system  of  road  construction  that 
consists  of  a  combination"  of  the  two  methods  hitherto  used,  with 
good  results — namely:  First,  a  foundation  course,  a  thin  layer  of 
binding  material  on  this,  then  the  broken  stone,  another  thin  layer 
of  binding  material,  and  then  wet  down  and  roll. 

Rollers. — The  subject  of  rollers  is  one  demanding  some  atten- 
tion. In  general,  people  are  apt  to  over-estimate  the  value  of  a 
roller  with  respect  to  its  weight.  It  will  be  evident,  on  reflection, 
that  a  roller  should  be  as  heavy  per  inch  in  length  of  roller,  as  a 
loaded  wagon  wheel  is  per  inch  of  tire;  or,  in  other  words,  if  we  have 
a  wagon  with  tires  2^  inches  wide,  and  on  each  wheel  a  load  of  say 
one  ton,  the  roller  should  weigh  two-fifths  ton  for  every  inch  in 
length,  or  a  roller  three  feet  long  should  weigh  about  14^  tons,  or 
else  a  wagon  as  above  described  would  exercise  more  pressure  on 
the  road-bed  per  square  inch  than  the  roller  and  consequently  would 
cut  into  the  roller  surface  and  produce  ruts. 

The  proper  width  of  tire,  or  proper  load  upon  any  vehicle  for 
a  given  width  of  tire,  is  a  question  that  occasionally  attracts  atten- 
tion. Bokelberg,  a  good  German  authority  on  the  subject,  in  an 
article  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  and  Architects, 
at  Hanover,  1858,  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  for  four-wheeled 
vehicles,  upon  a  broken  stone  road,  the  loads  should  vary  with  the 
widths  of  tires,  as  follows  : 

Width  of  tires. 

Inches.  Load  in  pounds. 

2  to  3 5,ooo  to  6,600 

3  to  4 6,600  to  8,800 

4  to  5 11,000 

5  to  6 13,000 

6  to  7  15,000 

7  and  over 16,500 

Further  conclusions  are  that  the  best  width  of  tire,  measured 
when  they  are  new,  for  the  transportation  of  freight,  is  from  four  to 
seven  inches;  this  width  being  best  for  the  easy  traction  of  the  load 
no  less  than  for  a  minimum  wear  of  the  road  surface.  To  make  the 
tires  wider  than  seven  inches  does  not  diminish  the  force  required 
to  move  the  load,  and  unnecessarily  increases  the  dead  weight  of  the 
wagons. 

Road-rollers  are  of  two  principal  kinds  :  those  pulled  by  horses 
and  those  propelled  by  steam.  The  latter  are,  for  many  reasons,  the 
best.  In  the  first  place  they  can  be  made  as  heavy  as  desired,  with, 
out  proportionally  increasing  the  cost  of  propelling  them,  and  being 
self-propelling,  the  only  track  they  make  is  that  of  the  roller,  whereas 
with  horse  rollers,  the  hoof-marks  of  the  horses  are  a  great  objection. 
Then,  again,  in  the  amount  of  work  they  will  do  at  a  certain  cost, 


318  ROADS. 

they  excel  horse  rollers.  They  may  be  briefly  described  as  a  sort  of 
locomotive  mounted  on  three  or  four  very  broad  and  heavy  wheels, 
these  latter  being  the  road-rollers. 

An  excellent  pamphlet  on  the  subject  of  steam  road-rollers  is 
the  "Report  on  the  Economy  of  Maintenance  and  Horse  Draught 
Through  Steam  Road-Rolling,"  by  Frederick  A.  Paget.  E.  &  F.  N. 
Spon,  1870.  Readable  articles  on  the  same  subject  are  :  "Steam 
Road-Roller,"  Engineering,  October  4,  1867;  "Paris  Kind  of  Steam 
Road-Roller,"  Engineering,  May  7,  1869;  "Cost  of  Operating  Steam 
Road-Rollers,  Engineering,  June  18,  1869;  "Good  Steam  Road- 
Roller,"  Engineering,  January  14,  1870;  "Economy  of  Steam  Road- 
Rolling,"  Engineer,  April  i,  1870;  "How  to  Use  the  Road-Roller 
During  Alternate  Thawing  and  Freezing,"  Annales  des  P.  &  C., 
1877,  p.  125.  In  the  spring  and  fall  on  finished  roads,  and  occa- 
sionally during  the  first  construction  or  reconstruction  of  roads,  the 
surface  becomes  sticky  mud,  and  to  roll  the  road  at  those  times,  or  to 
travel  on  it,  tears  up  the  covering  and  spoils  the  whole.  If  at  such 


fie.  5 


CIBCULA.B  TPRAJCE  HOSSB  BO  AD  ROLlJEB-FenpectiTW  Vi»». 

times  the  roller  be  constantly  sprinkled  and  kept  wet  while  it  is  being 
used,  it  will  shed  the  mud  or  road  covering,  instead  of  tearing  it  up, 
and  will  consolidate  the  road  in  a  very  superior  manner.  And  this 
method  requires  less  water  (only  about  one  gallon  to  one  and  a  half 
gallons  per  100  feet  of  travel)  than  the  method  formerly  used  under 
these  circumstances,  of  converting  the  sticky  mud  into  liquid  mud, 
by  copiously  wetting  down  the  whole  road. 

There  are  several  varieties  in  use  in  France  and  England,  and 
two,  at  least,  of  the  English  kind  have  been  imported  into  this 
country,  one  for  the  New  York  Central  Park,  the  other  for  the 
Arsenal  Grounds  in  Philadelphia.  The  cost  of  the  Central  Park 
steam  road-roller,  made  by  Aveling  &  Porter,  of  Rochester,  Kent, 
England,  was  about  $5,000  set  up  in  New  York,  and  the  amount  of 
work  it  will  do  in  one  day,  at  a  running  expense  of  $10,  has  been 
given  as  equal  to  that  of  a  seven-ton,  eight-horse  road-roller  in  two 
days  at  $20  per  day,  or,  in  other  words,  it  will  do  the  same  work  at 
one-fourth  the  running  cost  and  in  one-half  the  time,  of  a  first-class 
horse  road-roller. 


ROADS. 


319 


Since  1870,  many  other  steam-rollers  have  been  bought  by 
yarious  parties  in  the  United  States.  Thus,  there  is  one  owned  by 
Daniel  Brennan,  a  road  contractor,  in  Orange,  N.  J.;  the  city  of 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  has  run  one  with  great  success  for  several  years; 


after  many  years  of  agitation  on  the  subject,  the  city  of  Boston  now 
owns  and  operates  a  steam  road-roller,  and  so  on. 

The  best  horse  road-roller  of  which  the  writer  has  any  cogni- 
zance is  the  one  shown  by  the  annexed  drawings  in  plan,  elevation 
and  in  perspective.  (See  Figs.  5,  6  and  7.)  It  originated  in  Chem- 


320 


ROADS. 


nitz,  Germany,  but  can,  of  course,  be  easily  made  by  any  machine- 
shop  or  foundry.  The  hollow  roller  is  made  of  cast  iron,  and  is  so 
arranged  that  it  may  be  filled  with  water  when  it  is  to  be  used 


in 


heavy  rolling;  when  not  in  use  and  about  to  be  moved  from  place  to 
place,  the  water  is  allowed  to  run  out,  thus  materially  lessening  the 
load.  A  circular  cast-iron  frame  A,  surrounds  the  roller,  and  carries 
the  axle  bearings  of  the  same.  The  outside  of  this  frame  is  turned 
to  form  a  groove  in  which  a  strong  wrought-iron  ring  is  fitted  in  such 


ROADS.  321 

a  manner  that  it  will  turn  easily  around  the  former.  This  wrought- 
iron  ring  consists  of  two  semicircular  parts,  at  whose  junction  the 
pole  is  attached  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  an  extension  bar, 
carrying  the  balance  weight  c,  which  may  be  shifted  by  means  of  the 
set  clamp  d,  or  turned  up  by  means  of  the  hinge  b.  Pins  going 
through  the  holes  at  ^,  fasten  this  ring  or  allow  it  to  be  turned  for 
the  purpose  of  pulling  the  roller  in  the  contrary  direction,  when 
desired.  The  brake  is  shown  at  //,  and  consists  of  four  wooden 
brake-blocks,  attached  by  iron  shoes  to  a  bar  behind  them  and  hav- 
ing rubber  packing  between  the  shoes.  The  screws  shown  and  the 
handles  h  are  used  to  operate  these  brakes.  The  cranks  m,  working 
the  screws  ny  operate  the  scrapers  /,  which  are  used  to  keep  the  roller 
clean  in  muddy  weather.  The  frame  A,  is  made  heavier  at  <?,  so  as 
to  have  increased  weight  there  to  balance  the  whole  frame-work  in 
turning  around.  The  support  /,  and  the  guide-wheel  £,  might  be 
dispensed  with.  A  great  saving  in  time  and  in  movements  hurtful 
to  the  road  is  effected  by  making  the  frame  circular  as  described, 
this  allowing  the  roller  to  be  turned  with  the  greatest  ease.  The 
dimensions  are  figured  on  the  drawing.  A  roller  of  this  kind,  4^ 
feet  in  diameter  and  3^  feet  long,  and  weighing  some  four  tons  when 
empty,  would  cost  perhaps  $560  to  $600;  one  s'xs'xS",  weighing 
about  5^  tons  (empty),  some  $700  to  $750.  Leaving  off  the  brake 
would  diminish  the  cost  about  $50. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  macadam  top  roads,  it  ought  to 
be  mentioned  that  a  bed  of  rubble  stone,  10  or  12  inches  deep, 
merely  spread  uniformly  over  the  road-bed  as  a  foundation,  is  better 
than  nothing  at  all,  but  can  never  make  the  same  quality  of  road  as 
the  rough  paving  described  above. 

The  following  data  are  to  be  used  in  estimating  the  cost  of  the 
kind  of  road  just  described.  Rough  foundation  paving,  pieces  five 
or  six  inches  long,  filling  up  crevices  and  ramming  the  whole  with 
hand  rammers,  costs,  after  the  material  has  been  brought  to  the  spot, 
one  day's  work  of  a  common  laborer  for  every  four  square  yards, 
this  assuming  that  the  paver  gets  ij  common  laborer's  wages. 
Same  kind  of  paving  if  set  in  sand  will  cost  one  day's  work  of  a 
common  laborer  for  every  2\  square  yards.  These  figures  for  the 
cost  of  setting  rough  pavement  for  a  foundation  course  have  been 
objected  to  by  an  American  road  contractor  as  entirely  too  high,  he 
claiming  to  set  20,  and  even  50,  square  yards  to  a  man  per  day.  An 
explanation  of  these  different  figures  probably  lies  in  the  phrase 
"ramming  the  whole  with  hand  rammers"  ;  in  the  general  quality 
of  the  work  done,  etc.,  the  writer's  own  opinion  is,  that  no  very  fine 
work  is  necessary  in  the  construction  of  the  foundation  course.  Its 
duties  are  to  remain  pervious  and  not  to  settle  unevenly.  The  same 


322  ROADS. 

contractor  above  mentioned  wrote,  in  1870  :  "I  put  down  and  keep 
in  perfect  order  for  a  year  from  the  time  of  completion,  a  1 2-inch 
road  (6  to  7  inch  foundation,  5  to  6  inch  surfacing)  at  a  distance 
from  the  quarry  of  three  miles  (materials  exclusively  quarried  trap 
rock)  for  $1.50  per  square  yard  ;  wages  of  men  average  $2.25  per 
day,  and  of  transportation,  $1.25  per  cubic  yard.  This  includes  my 
profit." 

To  make  macadam  by  hand  costs,  for  sizes  from  ij  to  i^  inches 
of  very^  hard  rock,  one  day's  work  for  every  0.6  to  0.44  cubic 
yards,  for  less  hard  rock,  one  day's  wages  will  make  0.7  to  0.6  cubic 
yards,  and  of  soft  rocks  1.76  to  1.17  cubic  yards.  In  1872  the 
estimated  cost  of  crushing  stone  by  the  Blake  machine  ranged  from 
30  to  60  cents  per  cubic  yard  ;  to  crush  the  same  stone  by  hand  it 
was  estimated  would  cost  from  $1.20  to  $3  per  cubic  yard.  To 
spread  14  to  12  cubic  yards  of  macadam  is  also  about  a  day's  work. 

Gravel  Top. — Instead  of  the  macadam  top  described  in  the 
preceding  articles,  screened  gravel  may  be  used.  These  roads  are 
the  favorite  ones  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  and  are  probably  the 
best  roads  there  are  for  pleasure  drives.  It  is  a  matter  of  some 
doubt  yet  whether  they  do  as  well  for  heavy  trucking  as  they  do  for 
light  vehicles.  The  foundation  for  these  gravel  roads  should  be  the 
same  as  the  rough  paving  for  the  macadam  road  ;  some  pieces  were 
built  in  the  Central  Park  having  a  rubble  stone  foundation  but  they 
are  not  recommended  by  their  builders.  The  gravel  to  be  used  for 
the  top  must  be  selected  with  some  care  ;  it  should  be  of  a  hard  kind 
of  stone,  clean,  that  is,  free  from  clay,  etc.,  of  the  right  color,  etc. 
It  is  put  on  in  two  layers,  each  rolled,  and  the  top  one  made  com- 
pact and  firm,  by  spreading  and  mixing  in  some  good  binding 
material,  sprinkling  and  rolling.  There  need  be  no  fear  of  making 
a  poor  road  by  using  the  smoothest,  most  water-worn  pebbles,  free 
from  all  sand,  etc.,  in  making  a  road-top.  The  upper  portions  of 
the  river  Rhine  are  remarkable  for  the  clean,  smooth  pebbles  that 
form  its  bed  to  a  very  great  depth.  These  pebbles  are  dredged 
np  and  used  in  road-building,  making  an  excellent  road-covering 
at  a  small  expense.  In  gravelly  soil  all  the  materials  that  are 
needed  for  a  good  road  are  frequently  found  on  the  spot ;  they 
only  need  sorting  out  and  re-laying.  For  this  reason  a  common 
gravel  sieve  often  constitutes  the  principal  instrument  whose  judi- 
cious use  will  make  a  good  road  out  of  a  miserable  string  of  ruts 
and  cobbly  elevations.  It  would  be  only  necessary  to  sift  out  and 
separate  the  soil  under  the  road  to  a  sufficient  depth,  into  cobbles, 
coarse  gravel,  fine  gravel,  and  sand  ;  then  replace  them  in  the  order 
named,  and  with  the  proper  thickness  of  layers  of  each  ;  wet  down 
and  roll,  and  the  result  will  be  a  good  road.  As  regards  the  ad- 


ROADS.  323 

visability  of  well  constructing  roads,  the  following  from  the  Bath 
(Me.),  Times,  of  May  n,  1870,  is  not  without  instruction  (the 
Waltham  roads  therein  spoken  of  are  also  mentioned  in  the  extracts 
from  a  report,  which  is  printed  in  the  appendix):  "I  will  here  sub- 
mit a  comparison  of  the  cost  of  our  roads  with  those  of  the  town  of 
Waltham,  noted  for  its  good  roads.  Waltham  has  51  miles  of  roads, 
the  expense,  including  everything,  of  maintaining  their  highways, 
except  sidewalks,  for  seven  years  previous  to  1868,  was  $3,357  per 
year,  or  $66  per  mile.  In  1868,  with  60  miles  of  road,  including 
probably  the  building  of  nine  miles,  the  cost  was  $6,000  or  $100 
per  mile.  The  city  of  Bath  has  not  over  32  miles  of  roads.  The 
average  cost  of  repairs  on  our  roads  for  the  past  three  years  is 
$10,153;  not  including  the  expense  of  sidewalk,  $317  per  mile. 
At  his  rate,  if  we  reduce  the  cost  of  repairs  of  our  roads  to  $100 
per  mile  we  could  afford  to  hire  money  at  7  per  cent,  and  expend 
$100,000  upon  their  permanent  improvement,  and  it  would  be 
vastly  cheaper  to  do  so  than  to  continue  our  present  system." 
There  are  many  miles  of  such  roads  in  Baden  and  in  the  Bavarian 
Rhine  provinces. 

Keeping  Roads  in  Repair. — This  subject  properly  finds  its  place 
here,  being  a  matter  of  skill  and  a  thing  of  debate  only  in  the  case 
of  what  we  have  called  foundation  roads  ;  pavements  and  trackway 
roads,  to  be  considered  after  this,  need  no  special  directions  as 
regards  their  repair  or  maintenance. 

After  a  road  has  been  properly  rolled,  and  the  surface  made 
compact  and  smooth,  it  should  always  be  maintained  in  that  con- 
dition, no  matter  how  great  is  the  amount  of  travel  on  it.  "  A  stitch 
in  time  saves  nine,"  here  as  well  as  elsewhere.  The  tendency  is  to 
produce  ruts  ;  these  gather  water ;  this  soaks  into  the  road-bed  and 
spoils  the  whole.  The  problem  can  be  put  in  this  way  :  To  have  a 
good  road  it  is  necessary  that  there  be  no  dust  or  mud  on  the  same, 
and  that  there  be  no  ruts  ;  therefore  remove  the  dust  and  mud  as 
fast  as  they  are  formed,  and  fill  up  the  ruts  as  fast  as  they  are  made. 
The  whole  matter  is  here  in  a  nutshell.  It  may  be  thought,  at  the 
first  view,  that  this  is  too  expensive  a  system.  Its  principal  beauty 
lies,  however,  in  the  fact  that  it  costs  less  per  mile  of  road  kept  one 
year  than  the  pernicious  system  of  annual  or  semi-annual  repairs,  as 
will  be  shown  and  proved.  The  above  two  rules — sweep  off  the 
mud  and  dust  as  fast  as  they  are  formed,  and  fill  up  the  ruts  and 
bad  places  with  new  material  as  fast  as  they  appear — are  all  that  is 
necessary  to  be  carried  out  in  order  that  there  be  continually  a  good 
road.  Without  continual  repairs,  there  can  be  no  such  thing  as  a 
constantly  good  road — a  proposition  that  cannot  too  often  be  re- 
peated. By  repairing  a  road  annually,  or  twice  a  year,  it  matters 


324  ROADS. 

not  which,  the  result  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  good  road  at  no  time 
during  the  whole  year.  The  road  is  wretched  just  after  repairs  ;  it 
becomes  passable  after  a  while,  and  deteriorates  from  that  day  for- 
ward, until  it  is  again  made  wretched  ;  and  so  on,  ad  infinitum, 
according  to  the  present  only  too  commonly  followed  system.  By 
the  other  method  is  offered  us  a  road  as  smooth  as  a  floor,  year  in 
year  out,  and,  let  it  not  be  forgotten,  at  a  less  expense. 

A  French  engineer,  named  Tresaguet,  was  the  first  in  1775,  to 
call  attention  to  this  proper  method  of  making  road  repairs.  His 
system — the  above  described  one — was  adopted  in  Baden  in  the 
year  1845,  and  has  been  long  in  universal  use  in  all  the  active 
European  countries.  Table  VII.  gives  the  actual  average  quantity 

TABLE  VII. 


YEAR. 

•  ~~~ 

Cubic  yards  used  per 
mile  in  one  year  to 
repair  roads. 

1832  

2l8  6 

1839  

iq8  7 

1851  

127  2 

1855  

QI   4 

1856  

89.4 

1860  

qq   4 

of  road  macadam  used  per  mile  of  road  in  Baden  to  make  the 
repairs  in  one  year,  and  shows  the  decrease  after  1845.  Table  VIII 
gives,  in  the  first  column,  the  cost  of  materials  and  labor  required 
to  repair  one  league  for  one  year  according  to  the  old  way — this 
column  being  calculated  for  the  years  following  1845  from  the  cost 
of  the  preceding  years,  and  allowing  for  the  increased  value  of  labor 
and  materials — while  in  the  second  column  we  have  the  actual  cost 
as  it  was  with  the  system  followed  at  the  time. 

These  figures  are  taken  as  given  by  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the 
Baden  Public  Works,  Mr.  Keller.  He  quaintly  adds :  "  These 
tables  give  clear  evidence  in  favor  of  the  reduced  cost  by  the 
adopted  system.  That  roads  are  better  now  than  they  formerly 
were,  everybody  knows."  Another  German  engineer  expresses 
himself  to  the  same  effect  in  a  little  different  way  :  '» It  costs  no 
more,"  says  he,  "to  keep  the  roads  in  repair  now  (1864)  than  it  did 
twenty  years  ago,  when  this  method  (of  continual  repairs)  was  not 
in  use,  although  labor  is  now  three  times  and  materials  are  twice  as 
dear  as  they  then  were."  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  of  the  supe- 
riority of  the  continual  repair  system  in  every  respect,  producing 
very  much  better  roads,  and  at  the  same  time  costing  less.  It  need 
only  be  tried  with  us  to  be  thenceforth  adopted. 


ROADS. 
TABLE  VIII. 


325 


Cost  of  Repairs  of  c 

me  league  of  Road. 

YEAR. 

By  old  way  of  so 
doing,  in  florins. 

By  system  of  con- 
tinual repairs,  in 
florins. 

1835  

,002 

I,OO2 

184.0 

,086 

1,  086 

184.5.  . 

,170 

97511 

1850  

,254 

965*8 

1855  

.339 

335«5o 

1860.  . 

i,423 

978|I 

How  to  Repair  Roads  on  the  Continuous  System. — We  suppose 
the  material  for  road-covering  to  lie  in  regular  measured  heaps,  all 
ready  to  be  used,  at  the  storage  places,  once  or  twice  above  men- 
tioned, as  being  200  to  250  feet  apart  alongside  of  the  road,  but  not 
encroaching  upon  it.  Then,  for  every  two  or  three  miles  of  road,  a 
so-called  road-keeper  is  employed  to  do  the  necessary,  work  and 
repairs.  An  enumeration  of  his  duties  will  comprise  at  the  same  time 
an  essay  on  the  art  of  road  repairing. 

1.  The  road  keeper  is  to  remove  the  dust  formed  in  dry  weather 
by  sweeping  with  a  brush  broom.     This  is  done  to  greatest  advan- 
tage just  after  a  slight  shower.     In  muddy  weather,  it  is  essential 
that  the  mud  be  removed  by  means  of  brooms  or  hoes.     A  little 
mud  on  the  surface  causes  ruts,  and  much  mud  softens  up  the  whole 
road-surface.     The  mud  is  to  be  raked  up  in  heaps  alongside  of  the 
road,  there  left  to  dry  and  then  carted  off.     To  hinder  as  much  as 
possible  the  formation  of  any  mud,  the  surface  drainage  must  remain 
unimpaired  ;  should  it  be  out  of  order,  the  water  standing  on  the 
road  is  to  be  swept  off.     To  diminish  the  wear  of  the  road  in  dry 
times,  the  road  should  be  sprinkled.* 

2.  Inasmuch   as    the   covering  gradually  wears  off,   notwith- 
standing  all   precautions,  it  must  be  renewed,  and  should  be  so 
renewed  gradually  in  the  same  measure  as  it  wears  off.     The  best 
time   to   put   on   new   road   metalling  is    during    continuous  wet 
weather. 


*  Bowles,  in  his  book,  "  Our  New  West,"  mentions  the  case  of  the  stage 
road  from  Sacramento  to  Virginia  City  via  Placerville,  150  miles  long, 
and  having  an  annual  traffic  of  7,000  or  8,000  heavy  teams,  and  whose 
proprietors  found  that  the  simplest  and  cheapest  way  of  keeping  it  in 
repair  during  dry  weather  was  to  sprinkle  the  whole  of  it — 150  miles  of 
mountain  road. 


326  ROADS. 

3.  In  filling  up  holes,  the  bottom  of  the  same  is  to  be  swept 
clean  of  mud,  then  filled  up  level  with  the  remainder  of  the  road, 
not  in  a  heap  so  high  above  it  as  to  obstruct  travel. 

Every  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  new  material  join  as 
speedily  as  possible  with  the  old  portion  of  the  road,  and  it  should 
be  so  well  laid  that  it  will  give  the  least  possible  hindrance  to  vehi- 
cles, which  will  then  not  avoid  the  patched  places. 

4.  When  many  ruts  occur  in  a  short  distance,  the  deepest  only 
are  to  be  filled  at  first.     After  the  patching  in  these  has  become 
solid,  then  the  rest  are  to  be  attended  to.    Long  ruts  or  wheel  tracks 
are  not  to  be  filled  up  the  whole  length  at  once,  but  only  short  pieces 
at  a  time.    If  this  precaution  is  neglected,  vehicles  avoid  such  places, 
and  new  ruts  are  formed  elsewhere. 

5.  Inasmuch  as  more  material  is  worn  off  in  a  dry  season  than 
can  be  put  on,  there  are  then  when  wet  weather  comes,  large  places 
to  be  repaired.     These  must  be  mended  by  degrees,  never  filling  up 
a  piece  larger  than  8  to  10  feet  by  4  to  7  feet  at  a  time,  and  not 
having  these  pieces  too  near  together ;  when  these  have  become 
solid,  then  some  more  may  be  filled  in  and  so  on  till  the  whole  is 
done. 

Should  it,  however,  become  absolutely  necessary  to  repair  a 
piece  of  road  in  dry  weather,  the  place  where  the  new  macadam  is 
to  be  deposited  must  be  loosened  up  with  a  pick,  then  the  new  ma- 
terial put  on  and  a  solid  top  formed  by  the  judicious  use  of  stone- 
dust  or  other  binding  material  and  sprinkling  with  water  and  pound- 
ing down  with  the  shovel,  or  by  what  may  be  called  "  puddling  " 
until  the  whole  be  solid.  Should  a  frost  or  very  dry  weather  occur 
immediately  after  macadam  has  been  put  on  the  road  in  wet  weather, 
so  that  the  same  will  not  join  on  to  the  rest  of  the  road  surface,  the 
whole  must  be  removed,  cleaned  and  returned  to  the  storage  heaps 
for  future  use.  A  layer  of  macadam  over  the  whole  road  should 
never  be  put  on  without  treating  it  immediately  afterwards  in  the 
manner  described  above  for  building  new  roads,  that  is,  mixing  in 
binding  material  with  the  top  course  and  rolling  it  in  wet  weather 
or  after  sprinkling. 

The  road-keeper  is  naturally  also  the  person  to  see  to  the 
proper  delivery  on  the  part  of  the  contractors,  if  such  there  be,  of 
the  road  material  in  the  prescribed  places  and  to  attend  to  the 
measuring  of  the  same. 

In  short,  and  to  sum  up,  it  is  his  business  to  keep  the  road  in 
good  order,  and  with  proper  men  and  surveillance  the  desired  result 
is  achieved  easily,  and  at  a  less  cost  than  by  any  other  system. 
The  quantity  of  macadam  required  to  keep  a  certain  length  of  road 
in  repair  varies  very  much  ;  it  depends,  as  we  have  seen,  on  the 


ROADS.  327 

care  with  ,which  the  repairs  are  made,  naturally  also  on  the  kind  of 
stone  used  and  on  the  amount  of  travel  over  the  road.  For  a  width 
of  road  =  20  feet,  the  average  quantities  required  per  year  to  keep 
a  length  of  ten  feet  in  repair,  on  the  system  of  continuous  repairs, 
has  been  given,  as  in  Table  IX. 

TABLE  IX. 

Cub.  ft     Cub.  yds. 

1.  Good  material  and  heavy  travel 15-20  =  .  55-. 74 

2.  Good  material  and  medium  amount  of  travel  10-15  =•  .37-.  55 

3.  Good  material  and  light  travel 5-10  =  .  18-. 37 

4.  Medium  material  and  heavy  travel 20-25  *=s*  •  74--92 

5.  Medium  material    and    medium   amount  of 

travel .  ..  15-20=  .55-.  74 

6.  Medium  material  and  light  travel 10-15  =  -37-. 55 

7.  Third  rate  material  and  heavy  travel 25-30  =  .92-1 .01 

8.  Third  rate  material  and  medium  amount  of 

travel    20-25  =  . 74-. 92 

9.  Third  rate  material  and  light  travel 15-20  =  .  55-.  74 

These  are  the  quantities  as  given  by  one  authority,  but  from  a 
comparison  with  the  amounts  actually  used  during  a  period  of  ten 
years  on  39  roads,  having  various  amounts  of  travel  upon  them  and 
being  repaired  with  all  kinds  of  road  metal,  it  would  seem  that  the 
above  figures  are  very  ample. 

The  exact  relation  between  the  quantity  of  road  material  that  is 
necessary  to  keep  a  road  in  repairs,  and  the  amount  of  travel  over 
it  is  still  a  matter  of  intelligent  observation  and  discussion.  The 
quantity  required  does  not  seem  to  be  proportional  solely  to  the 
amount  of  travel,  even  with  one  and  the  same  kind  of  stone  used  on 
the  same  road  ;  as  will  appear  also  when  it  is  considered  that  were 
there  no  travel  over  the  road  at  all,  the  surfacing  would,  neverthe- 
less, wear  out  by  the  action  of  the  frost,  the  rain,  etc.  As  recent  an 
article  as  the  "Annales  des  P.  and  C.,"  1877,  p.  226,  is  devoted  to 
this  subject,  and  does  not  arrive  at  any  definite  general  conclusion. 

Repairs  of  Macadamized  and  Much  Frequented  Streets  in  Cities. — 
In  this  case,  where  the  amount  of  travel  in  one  day  is  often  greater 
than  that  of  a  month  or  more  on  the  town  road,  the  system  of  con- 
tinuous repairs  ceases  to  be  the  best  available,  on  account  of  the 
incessant  throng  of  vehicles  not  giving  any  repaired  place  a  chance 
to  become  solid  before  it  is  again  plowed  up  and  scattered.  Thus 
in  the  city  of  Paris,  on  the  Boulevards,  etc.,  the  continuous  system 
has  been  abandoned,  and  the  practice  now  is  to  let  the  street  grad- 
ually wear  down  three  to  four  inches,  then  close  half  of  it  (divided 
"fore  and  aft")  to  travel,  loosen  it  all  up  with  picks,  and  put  on  a 
layer  three  or  four  inches  (best  not  to  put  on  more  than  that),  spread 
a  thin  layer  of  sand  over  this,  sprinkle  and  roll  heavily.  It  often 


328  ROADS. 

happens  that  the  men  put  too  much  of  the  sand  on;  in  that  case,  the 
road,  after  it  is  all  done,  is  finally  well  watered  and  the  roller  is 
again  passed  over  it  a  number  of  times.  This  operation  causes  the 
superfluous  binding  material  to  come  to  the  surface  in  the  shape  of 
thin  mud  and  leaves  the  road  covering  as  hard  and  smooth  as 
mosaic,  making  a  most  excellent  driveway.  It  emits  a  sonorous, 
ringing  sound  on  being  driven  over,  and  remains  clean  and  without 
mud  throughout  the  heaviest  rain-storms.  The  rolling  of  the  streets 
in  Paris  is  done  by  a  company  owning  a  large  number  of  steam- 
rollers; in  paying  them  for  work  done  the  city  was  obliged  to  go 
back  to  first  principles  for  a  measure  of  such  work,  it  being  found 
impossible  to  estimate  correctly  by  the  square  measure  of  surface 
rolled  to  such  and  such  a  degree  of  hardness.  The  measure 
adopted  is  that  of  weight  multiplied  into  the  distance  it  has  been 
moved,  or  "feet-pounds,"  as  we  should  say.  It  has  been  found  from 
many  years'  experience  that  to  roll  one  cubic  meter  of  macadam 
requires  4  to  5  "kilometer-tonnes,"  and  this  is  true  whether  the  layer 
of  macadam  be  3^  or  10  inches  thick.  Expressed  in  our  measures, 
this  is  11,020  -  13,775  feet  tons  to  2>°°°  pounds  =  2.09  -  2.61  mile 
tons  per  cubic  yard  of  macadam. 

The  advocates  of  the  steam  road-roller  claim  that  by  means  of 
that  machine  they  are  enabled  to  make  a  road  that  will  wear  out 
evenly  and  uniformly  for  four  or  five  inches,  so  that  the  operation  of 
patching  need  never  be  resorted  to.  The  steam  road-roller  can  also 
be  used  for  "picking"  up  a  road,  for  which  purpose  the  roller  is 
armed  with  sharp  spikes,  and  is  then  driven  over  the  surface  to  be 
"picked"  up. 

Pavements  and  Trackways. — No  essay  on  roads  would  be  com- 
plete without  some  mention  of  these  two  species  of  road  surface, 
though  the  use  of  the  former  is  confined  principally  to  streets,  and 
that  of  the  latter  is  out  of  date. 

Pavements  are  either  of  stone,  wood,  iron,  various  concretes, 
asphalt,  and  may  be  of  still  other  substances. 

Stone  Pavements. — The  modern  sizes  of  paving  stones  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  cases:  The  Boston  size  is  4j"x3j"x7//  deep; 
New  York  Belgian,  6"  to  8"  x  5*  to  6"  x  6"  to  f  deep;  new  Broadway 
pavement,  also  called  Guidet  pavement,  3^"  to  4 1 "  x  i  o"  to  1 4"  x  7  \ "  to 
SI"  deep.  This  last  is  laid  with  the  long  sides  of  the  stones  across 
the  street;  and,  as  far  as  the  author's  judgment  goes,  is  the  best  size 
for  stone  pavement  there  is.  The  Boston  size  is  too  small,  and 
allows  of  no  bond  between  the  separate  paving  stones.  Further,  the 
weakest  part  of  each  stone  being  its  edge,  it  follows  that  the  more 
edges  there  are  in  a  given  surface  of  pavement,  the  speedier  will  it 
wear  out,  each  stone  becoming  rounded  and  slippery.  It  is  only 


ROADS.  329 

the  excellent  workmanship  and  great  care  displayed  in  setting  these 
stones  in  Boston  that  prevents  these  facts  from  being  at  once  appar- 
ent to  all.  When  it  is  added  that  in  setting  pavements,  the  natural 
soil,  except  it  be  sand  or  fine  gravel,  is  in  all  cases  to  be  excavated 
12  to  19  inches,  and  then  filled  up  5  to  12  inches,  according  to  the 
solidity  of  the  subsoil,  with  clean,  coarse  sand  or  fine,  clean  gravel, 
and  the  paving  stone  set  in  this  and  well  rammed  down  with  hand- 
rammers;  about  as  much  is  said  on  this  topic  as  can  be  said  without 
going  into  long  details. 

From  4j  to  6  cubic  feet  of  sand  are  required  for  every  square 
yard  of  paving.  In  setting  two  different  pavements,  the  same  writ- 
ten rules  may  be  exactly  followed  in  either  case,  yet  one  be  much 
better  than  the  other,  so  much  depends  here  upon  good,  careful, 
conscientious  workmanship. 

Wooden  Pavements. — There  are  so  many  kinds  of  these  that  it 
would  be  out  of  place  to  enumerate  and  describe  them  all  here. 
Their  advantages  are  less  wear  on  tires  and  horses,  less  noise  and 
smooth  traction;  a  disadvantage  is  their  slipperiness  in  the  winter. 
There  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  notion  that  wood  pavements  and  coal 
tar  must  go  hand-in-hand;  but  there  certainly  is  no  necessity  for 
this.  Coal  tar  is  applied  as  a  preservative  to  the  wood;  but  it  must 
be  acknowledged  that  many  better  ones  are  known,  and  indeed  are 
used,  to  the  utter  exclusion  of  coal  tar,  in  all  cases  where  it  is  desired 
to  preserve  wood,  except  in  this  of  wood  pavements. 

No  wood  should  be  used  in  paving  that  has  not  been  first  sub- 
jected to  some  approved  method  of  preservation,  or  impregnation, 
as  it  is  frequently  called.  The  best  manner  of  setting  the  same 
is  still  a  mooted  point,  which  it  would  be  presumptuous  at  present  to 
decide. 

A  valuable  contribution  to  the  subject  of  wooden  pavements  is 
the  report  of  the  Commission  appointed  by  the  City  of  Boston  to 
consider  this  subject,  in  1872,  City  Document  No.  100,  1873.  The 
Commission  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  best  way  to  preserve 
the  wood  that  is  put  down  is  by  the  method  called  Burnettizing, 
after  its  inventor,  Sir  H.  Burnett,  of  England,  in  1838.  It  consists 
of  treating  the  wood  to  be  preserved  with  chloride  of  zinc.  The 
Commissioners  wisely  add:  "Your  Commissioners  are  of  the  opin- 
ion that  if  the  city  adopts  any  method  of  preserving  blocks  to  be 
used  for  pavements,  some  additional  security  should  be  had  that  the 
treatment  of  the  wood  shall  be  thorough  and  complete."  As 
regards  the  construction  of  the  pavement,  the  Commissioners  rec- 
ommend spruce  blocks  (for  this  section  of  the  country),  lay  stress 
on  the  necessity  of  a  solid,  uniformly  constituted  and  rolled  gravel 
foundation,  and  then  say:  "  The  rows  or  blocks  should  be  set  square 


330  ROADS. 

across  the  street,  and  should  be  about  four  inches  thick  at  top,  with 
spaces  of  about  one-half  inch  between  the  rows.  This  may  be  done 
with  blocks  of  uniform  thickness  set  apart,  or  with  tapering  blocks  half 
an  inch  thicker  at  bottom  than  at  top.  The  latter  arrangement  is 
the  more  costly,  but  it  is  believed  by  some  that  it  will  stand  better, 
by  reason  of  its  covering  the  whole  surface  of  the  foundation. 
Longer  trial  is  necessary  to  settle  this  point  beyond  dispute.  Blocks 
of  only  a  short  chamfer  at  the  top  leave  the  inter-space  too  narrow, 
as  the  blocks  wear  down."  The  Commission  named  consisted  of 
"two  chemists,  two  practical  mechanics,  and  one  civil  engineer." 

Cast-iron  pavements  are  out  of  favor  on  account  of  their  great 
cost,  and  concrete  pavements  are  a  matter  of  experiment  as  yet. 

Asphalt  pavements  are  chiefly  used  in  Paris.  They  are  slip- 
pery in  wet  weather,  and  produce  a  very  disagreeable,  penetrating 
dust  in  dry  weather.  It  is  necessary  to  prepare  a  bed  of  macadam 
to  lay  them  on,  and  they  are  not  used  in  Paris  except  in  streets 
where  the  gas-pipes  are  carried  either  in  the  sewers  or  under  the 
sidewalks,  as  any  leak  of  gas  would  destroy  them.  Their  use  is  a 
matter  of  doubtful  economy. 

Trackways  are,  as  has  been  mentioned,  out  of  date.  Where  a 
common  road  does  not  suffice  nowadays,  a  railroad  is  built;  but 
time  was  when  trackways  were  of  considerable  importance.  They 
consist,  if  of  stone,  of  large,  flat  stones,  say  12  inches  deep  and  4  to 
6  feet  long  by  14  to  16  inches  wide,  solidly  bedded  in  two  parallel 
rows,  at  such  distance  apart  as  to  make  of  each  row  a  track  for  the 
wheels.  The  space  between  is  paved.  They  are,  of  course,  very 
expensive,  but  cost  little  to  repair,  and  enable  a  horse  to  pull  a  very 
great  load.  As  has  been  mentioned,  Telford  made  use  of  such  a 
stone  trackway  to  avoid  cutting  down  a  hill  on  his  Holyhead  road. 
There  were  two  hills,  each  a  mile  in  length,  with  an  inclination  of 
5  in  100.  It  would  have  cost  $100,000  to  reduce  this  grade  to  4-J-  in 
100,  but  nearly  the  same  advantage,  in  diminishing  the  tractive  force 
required,  was  obtained  by  keeping  the  5  in  100  grade,  with  moder- 
ate cuttings  and  embankments,  and  making  stone  trackways,  at  a 
total  expense  of  less  than  half  the  former  amount. 

"  Plank  roads,"  once  so  much  in  vogue  in  the  United  States, 
may  not  improperly  be  classed  among  roads  with  trackways,  and, 
with  them,  also  among  the  things  that  were.  From  their  perishable 
nature,  they  can  never  advantageously  do  more  than  help  the  devel- 
opment of  a  new  country,  and  in  this,  as  well  as  other  States,  are 
yearly  becoming  more  and  more  impracticable  on  account  of  the 
constantly  increasing  price  of  lumber. 

On  the  Resistance  to  Motion  or  the  Force  Required  to  Move 
Vehicles  on  Different  Kinds  of  Roads. — Before,  as  well  as  since  the 


ROADS. 


331 


introduction  of  railways,  engineers  in  England,  Germany  and  France 
made  many  experiments  on  the  force  necessary  to  pull  different 
vehicles,  at  various  speeds,  over  various  surfaces.  To  enumerate 
the  details  of  all  these  experiments  would  be  perhaps  useless  ;  a 
few  general  results  only  are  here  given. 

Experiments,  as  above  indicated,  were  made  by  Edgeworth, 
Count  Rumford,  Bevan,  MacNeill,  Minard,  Navier,  Perdonnet,  Pon- 
celet,  Flachat,  Morin,  Kossak,  Umpfenbach,  Gerstner,  and  no  doubt 
others,  a  list  of  authorities  that  proves  the  subject  to  have  been  well 
nigh  exhausted.  The  experiments  of  Morin,  made  in  1838-41, 
appear  to  have  been  made  with  a  degree  of  care  and  accuracy, 
leaving  nothing  more  to  be  desired.  Table  X.  is  an  extract  from 
his  results,*  and  gives  that  fraction  of  the  weight  of  the  vehicle  and 
load  which  is  required  to  move  them  on  a  level  road  : 


TABLE  X. 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  ROAD. 

Character  of  the  Vehicle. 

2-  wheeled  carts. 

Trucks,  4-wh 
3  and  4  horse. 

I8 

"«« 

||| 

000, 

jtlom 

•V 

i£ 

si  a 

ifl 

#£G 

i   1*  O 

« 

Firm  soil,  covered  with  gravel  4  to  6 
inches  deep  

ft 

I1. 

i 

* 

A 

i 

i 

ft 
& 

TV 

I 
Vo 

V 

43 

Firm     embankment,    covered     with 
gravel  i^  to  i^  inches  deep 

Earth   embankment,    in    very    good 
condition  ...       

Bridge  flooring  of  thick  oak  plank  .  .  . 

BROKEN  STONE  ROAD. 

In  very  good    condition,   very  dry, 
compact  and  even  

! 

TV 

t 

ft 

Walk. 

TV 

1 

ft 

Trot. 

t 

ft 

Walk. 

t 

a1, 
i1, 

Trot. 

41* 
.'> 

TV 

TV 

A  little  moist  or  a  little  dusty 

Firm,  but  with  ruts  and  mud 

Very  bad,  ruts  4  to  4^  inches  deep, 
thick  mud  

,.    (Drv.. 

4 

$ 

£ 

t 

* 

t 

Good  pavement   Covered  with  mud 

*  A  full  account  of  Morin's  experiments  on  the  resistance  to  motion  of 
vehicles,  on  the  wear  caused  by  different  vehicles  on  roads,  and  on  the 
loads  different  vehicles  should  carry  so  as  to  produce  the  same  wear,  may 
be  found  in  Morin,  "  Experience  sur  le  tirage  des  Voitures,"  Paris,  1842. 


332  ROADS. 

To  take  an  example,  suppose  we  have  a  truck  weighing  with  its 
load  9,000  pounds.  How  many  pounds  traction  will  be  required  to 
move  the  same  ? 

Ans. — On  firm  soil,  gravel  4  to  6  inches  deep — that  is,  a  newly 
repaired  road,  as  we  often  find  it  (£  by  table),  1,000  pounds ;  on 
best  kind  of  embankment  (fff  by  table),  310.3  pounds;  on  broken 
stone  road  in  good  condition  (-g1T  by  table),  166.6  pounds ;  on 
broken  stone  road,  deep  ruts  and  mud  (^  by  table),  643.  pounds ; 
on  a  good  pavement  (-fa  by  table),  138.5  pounds.  Or,  since  the 
tractive  force  of  a  medium  horse  when  working  all  day  is  said  to  be 
about  125  pounds,  we  need  in  the  first  case,  8  horses  ;  in  the  second 
case,  2 J  horses ;  in  the  third  case,  about  i £  horses  ;  in  the  fourth 
case,  about  5  horses  ;  and  in  the  fifth  case,  only  one  good  horse  to 
move  the  same  entire  load  all  day. 

These  facts,  expressed  in  Table  X.  in  striking  yet  perhaps  dry 
figures,  can  be  nearly  as  well  given  in  popular  language. 

Says  a  correspondent  (Dr.  Holland),  of  the  Springfield  Republi- 
can, writing  from  England,  after  describing  the  kind  of  horses  in  use 
there : 

"Now,  with  all  these  horses  the  rule  follows  that  every  pound  of  muscle 
does  just  as  much  work  on  the  road  as  two  pounds  do  in  America.  The  cab 
and  omnibus  horse  does  twice  as  much  as  the  same  horse  does  in  America. 
The  draft  horse  does  as  much  in  the  dray  as  two  ordinary  dray  horses  in 
America,  and  the  little  horses,  which  are  driven  mainly  in  butchers'  carts 
and  grocers'  carts,  will  tire  a  cab  horse  to  follow  them  with  no  load  at  all. 

"  In  connection  with  these  statements  it  should  be  recorded  that  the 
speed  of  all  vehicles  in  the  streets  of  London,  whether  the  localities  be 
crowded  or  not,  is  at  least  a  third  faster  than  it  is  in  corresponding  streets 
in  American  cities.  The  ordinary  speed  of  vehicles  in  London,  in  which 
passengers  or  light  loads  are  transported,  is  one  which  is  considered  not 
entirely  safe  in  Main  Street,  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  one  which,  in  some 
streets  of  Boston  or  New  York,  would  be  at  once  checked  by  the  police.  A 
man  who  sits  in  a  '  Hansom '  finds  himself  driven  at  an  unprecedented  pace 
through  crowded  thoroughfares,  and,  Yankee  though  he  may  be,  he  will 
often  wonder  whether  he  is  going  to  bring  up  at  last  without  a  broken  neck. 

"I  mention  this  matter  of  speed,  particularly,  because  it  shows  that 
even  more  work  is  done  by  one  horse  in  London  than  by  two  in  New  York. 
He  not  only  draws  as  large  a  load,  but  he  travels  with  greater  rapidity. 
The  streets  of  London  present  such  a  spectacle  of  headlong  activity  as  no 
American  city  can  show,  in  consequence  of  the  rapid  passage  of  all  sorts  of 
vehicles  through  the  streets.  I  might  add  to  this  statement,  touching  the 
superior  speed  of  the  London  horses,  a  word  about  the  greater  weight  of 
the  carriages  which  they  are  obliged  to  draw  behind  them.  All  carriages 
are  built  more  heavily  in  Great  Britain  than  in  America,  They  are  built  to 
last,  and  many  of  them  seem  to  me  to  be  superfluously  heavy. 

' '  The  point  which  I  wish  to  impress  upon  my  American  reader  is 
simply  this  :  that  the  English  horse,  employed  in  the  streets  of  a  city,  or  on 
the  roads  of  the  country,  does  twice  as  much  work  as  the  American  horse 


ROADS.  333 

similarly  employed  in  America.  This  is  the  patent,  undeniable  fact.  No 
man  can  fail  to  see  it  who  has  his  eyes  about  him.  How  does  he  do  it? 
Why  does  he  do  it  ?  These  are  most  important  questions  to  an  American. 
Is  the  English  horse  better  than  the  American?  Not  at  all.  Is  he  over- 
worked? I  have  seen  no  evidence  that  he  is.  I  have  seen  but  one  lame 
horse  in  London.  The  simple  explanation  is  that  the  Englishman  has 
invested  in  perfect  and  permanent  roads  what  the  American  expends  in 
perishable  horses  that  require  to  be  fed.  We  are  using  to-day,  in  the  little 
town  of  Springfield,  just  twice  as  many  horses  as  would  be  necessary  to  do 
its  business  if  the  roads  all  over  the  town  were  as  good  as  Main  Street  is 
from  Ferry  to  Central.  We  are  supporting  hundreds  of  horses  to  drag 
loads  through  holes  that  ought  to  be  filled,  over  sand  that  should  be  hard- 
ened, through  mud  that  ought  not  to  be  permitted  to  exist.  We  have  the 
misery  of  bad  roads,  and  are  actually  or  practically  called  upon  to  pay  a 
premium  for  them.  It  would  be  demonstrably  cheaper  to  have  good  roads 
than  poor  ones.  It  is  so  here.  A  road  well  built  is  easily  kept  in  repair. 
A  mile  of  good  macadamized  road  is  more  easily  supported  than  a  poor 
horse." 

Other  results  of  Morin's  experiments  are  as  follows  : 

1.  The  force  required  to  draw  a  vehicle,  is  directly  proportional 
to  the  load  and  inversely  so  to  the  diameter  of  the  wheels  ;  in  other, 
more  common,  words,  the  tractive  force  increases  in  the  same  ratio 
that  the  load  increases,  and  the  diameters  of  the  wheels  decrease. 

2.  On  a  paved  or  well  built  macadam  road,  the  tractive  force  is 
independent  of  the  width  of  the  tires,  provided  the  same  is  more 
than  three  or  four  inches.     On  compressible  roads,  such  as  new 
tgravel,  on  a  meadow,  etc.,  the  tractive  force  diminishes  with   an 
increase  in  the  width  of  the  tires. 

3.  Other  circumstances  being  equal,  the  tractive  force  is  the 
same  for  vehicles  with  and  without  springs,  as  long  as  the  horses  are 
not  moving  faster  than  a  walk. 

4.  On  paved  and  well  macadamized  roads  the  tractive  force 
increases  with  the  velocity,  according  to  the  law,  that  beyond  a 
velocity  of  2 J  miles  per  hour  (3T37  feet  per  second)  the  increase  of 
the  tractive  force  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  increase  in  velocity  ; 
his  increment  is,  however,  less,  the  softer  the  track  or  road  and 
according  as  the  vehicle  is  best  provided  with  springs. 

5.  On  soft  earth  embankments,  or  on  sand  or  sods,  or  on  streets 
newly  covered  with  gravel,  the  tractive  force  is  independent  of  the 
velocity. 

6.  On  a  well  made  pavement  of  regular  shaped  stone,  the  trac- 
tive force,  horses  on  a  walk,  is  about  three-fourths  of  that  on  a  good 
macadam  road,  but  with  horses  on  a  trot,  the  two  are  about  equal. 

7.  The  wear  on  the  road  is  greater  the  smaller  the  diameter  of 
the  wheels,  and  greater  in  the  case  of  vehicles  without  than  for  those 
with  springs.     Most  road-rollers,  as  now  in  use,  have  too  small  a 


334  ROADS. 

diameter,  besides  being  too  light,  and  consequently  do  not  properly 
compress  the  road  surface. 

8.  The  tractive  force,  as  well  as  the  wear  on  the  road,  is  greater 
in  the  case  of  vehicles  that  have  their  wheels  placed  at  an  angle  with 
the  vertical  by  reason  of  the  ends  of  the  axle-trees  being  bent  down, 
than  for  those  that  have  their  wheels  set  plumb  and  the  center  line 
of  the  axle-trees  level. 

PART  II. 

On  the  "  Best  Methods  of  Superintending  the  Construction  and  Repair 
of  Public  Roads  in  this  Commonwealth." 

In  looking  for  a  solution  of  this  question  the  people  of  the 
Commonwealth  may  turn  as  they  choose,  either  to  the  West  or  to 
the  East,  to  see  a  guiding  star  :  to  the  city  of  Chicago,  or  to  the 
city  of  London,  both  under  a  republican  form  of  government,  alike 
or  similar  to  that  under  which  we  live.  It  lies  in  the  establishment 
of  a  Board  of  Public  Works,  composed  of  a  number  of  able  men, 
well  paid  for  their  services,  gradually  changing  in  their  membership 
in  the  board  who  shall  have  this  and  only  this  as  their  occupation 
and  who  can  therefore  be  held  responsible  for  their  acts.  This  is 
the  system  that  has  been  adopted  both  in  London  and  in  Chicago 
and  with  remarkable  success  and  resultant  benefits.  There  are 
many  other  systems  in  use  in  foreign  countries,  all  of  which,  how- 
ever, seem  to  be  inapplicable  here,  placed  as  we  are  under  so  differ- 
ent forms  of  government ;  hence,  though  well  acquainted  with  the 
systems  adopted  in  France  and  in  Germany,  the  writer  has  not 
described  them  here. 

Experience  in  London. — The  history  of  the  "  Metropolitan  Board 
of  Public  Works  of  the  City  of  London  "  is  about  as  follows : 

What  is  known  as  the  city  of  London  consists  in  reality  of  a 
great  number  of  what  we  should  call  towns,  there  called  parishes, 
and  of  which  the  city  of  London  is  only  one  single  member.  Each 
one  of  these  parishes  had,  and  still  has  in  most  respects,  its  own 
local  government  and  in  consequence  took  care  of  its  drainage,  its 
streets,  etc.,  etc.,  as  seemed  best  and  as  it  liked,  some  better,  some 
worse  and  some  not  at  all.  This  state  of  things  in  the  matter  of 
drains  and  sewers  finally  led  to  a  most  deplorable  condition  of 
affairs  ;  there  was  not,  nor  could  there  under  these  conditions  be, 
such  a  thing  as  a  system  of  sewers  and  consequently  a  proper  and 
adequate  drainage  ;  the  death-rate  increased  to  an  alarming  extent 
and  matters  came  to  be  universally  regarded  as  past  all  endurance. 
What  could  be  the  remedy  ?  No  well-grounded  complaint  could  be 
made  against  the  majority  of  the  men  composing  the  various  local 
governments,  since  they  were  good  and  honest  citizens,  and  hence 


ROADS.  335 

no  change  in  the  separate  governments  could  ever  bring  relief.  The 
fault  lay  not  in  the  men,  but  in  the  system  of  ruling  they  were  called 
upon  to  fulfil — that  is,  in  the  incompetent  and  faulty  tread-mill  of 
government  they  were  annually  called  upon  to  keep  in  its  usual 
operation.  It  was  then  seen  that  by  having  an  elected  power  to 
supervise  and  regulate  the  sewage  affairs  of  the  whole  metropolis,  a 
complete  system  of  drainage  could  be  carried  out,  and  thus  only. 
Such  a  regulating  power  is  exercised  by  the  Metropolitan  Board  of 
Public  Works,  chartered  by  Act  of  Parliament  and  composed  of 
members  elected  from  all  parts  of  London.  It  is,  perhaps,  in  place 
here  to  explain  what  is  meant  by  a  system  of  sewers,  as  the  same 
definition  will  hold  good  in  other  matters  ;  as  for  a  system  of  roads, 
of  drainage  and  irrigation  of  lands,  etc.  Perhaps  the  best  illustra- 
tion would  be  to  refer  one  to  the  veins  and  arteries  in  the  human 
body,  or  to  the  body  of  a  tree,  from  its  trunk  through  the  branches 
growing  smaller  and  smaller  down  to  the  smallest  twig  that  may  be 
on  it.  It  will  be  at  once  seen  how  different  any  arrangement,  in 
which  may  be  detected  the  wisdom  to  contrive,  the  strength  to  up- 
hold and  the  beauty  to  adorn,  like  this,  is  from  a  miserable  patch- 
work such  as  cannot  but  arise  where  the  separate  parts  of  one 
whole  are  each  left  to  guide  themselves  without  any  unity  of  action 
or  design,  as  to  their  final  resultant.  The  London  Board  of  Public 
Works  had  some  extraordinary  powers  conferred  upon  it,  such  as 
the  right  to  levy  assessments  on  real  estate  benefited  by  their  im- 
provements, and  others.  Originally  constituted  merely  to  plan  and 
execute  a  system  of  sewerage  for  the  metropolis,  this  Board  of  Public 
Works  soon  showed  itself  so  useful  and  beneficial  in  its  actions  that 
other  matters  were  placed  in  its  charge,  such  as  the  laying  out  of 
new  streets  the  building  of  the  Thames  embankment — a  work  of 
exceeding  great  magnitude  and  importance — and  there  seems  to  be 
no  doubt  that  in  all  public  works  London  will  find  it  advantageous 
to  employ  its  Metropolitan  Board  of  Public  Works. 

Experience  in  Chicago, — In  the  city  of  Chicago  there  has  been 
a  Board  of  Public  Works  almost  from  the  very  start.  It  arose  there 
from  the  union  of  the  water-supply  and  the  sewerage  commission- 
ers, and  has  existed  since  May,  1861.  No  less  than  in  London,  it 
has  proved  to  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  community  ;  and  it  would 
have  been  impossible,  under  any  other  system,  to  have  executed  in 
so  satisfactory  a  manner  the  many  and  useful  public  works  for  which 
Chicago  is  famed.  At  the  risk  of  introducing  in  this  place  some 
very  dry  reading,  a  general  synopsis  of  those  parts  of  the  city  charter 
which  relate  to  the  Chicago  Board  of  Public  Works  is  here  given. 
The  whole  may  be  found  in  a  copy  of  "Laws  and  Ordinances, 
Chicago,  1866." 


336  ROADS. 

SECTION  i.  Establishes  a  body  known  as  the  Chicago  Board  of  Public 
Works,  to  consist  of  (3)  three  members,  chosen  by  the  people,  one  from 
each  division  of  city. 

The  first  three  chosen  for  one,  two  and  three  years  ;  after  that,  one 
each  year  for  three  years, 

SEC.  2.  Each  member  of  Board  shall  receive  annual  salary  of  $3,000 
(by  Act  of  February,  1866) ;  give  bonds  for  faithful  discharge  of  duties  ; 
pay  over  all  moneys,  papers,  etc.,  at  expiration  of  his  term,  or  when 
ordered  by  City  Council. 

SEC.  3.  Board  to  elect  president  and  treasurer,  and  make  by-laws. 

SEC,  4.  Majority  constitutes  quorum  ;  records  to  be  kept  of  proceed- 
ings ;  copies  of  all  plans,  estimates,  etc.,  to  be  kept ;  report  (annual),  to  be 

rendered  on  or  before each  year,  or  when  required  by 

City  Council.  Each  member  authorized  to  administer  legal  oaths. 

SEC.  5.  Board  shall  have  special  charge  and  stiperintendence,  subject 
to  the  laws  and  ordinances  of  City  Council,  of  all  streets,  lanes,  alleys,  etc., 
in  the  city  of  Chicago,  and  of  all  walks  and  crossings  in  the  same,  and  of 
all  bridges,  docks,  wharves,  public  places,  landings,  grounds  and  parks  in 
said  city,  and  of  all  halls,  engine-houses,  and  other  public  buildings  in  the 
city  belonging  to  city,  except  school-houses,  and  of  the  erection  of  all  pub- 
lic buildings;  of  lamps  and  lights  in  streets,  etc.,  and  in  public  buildings, 
and  repairs  of  same;  of  the  harbor  works  and  improvements;  of  the  city 
sewers  and  drains  and  of  the  water- works;  of  the  fire-alarm  telegraph,  and 
all  public  works  and  improvements  hereafter  to  be  commenced  by  the  city, 
as  well  as  such  other  duties  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  City  Council  by 
ordinance. 

SEC.  6.  All  applications  or  propositions  for  improvements,  or  new 
works  of  kind  specified  in  section  five,  shall  hereafter  be  first  made  to  Board 
of  Public  Works,  or  if  first  made  to  City  Council,  shall  be  by  them  referred 
to  Board.  Upon  receiving  application,  Board  shall  investigate  the  same, 
and  if  they  find  such  work  necessary  and  proper,  shall  thus  report  to  City 
Council,  with  an  estimate  of  the  expense  thereof.  If  they  do  not  approve 
of  such  application  they  shall  report  the  reasons  for  their  disapproval,  and 
the  City  Council  may  then,  in  either  case,  reject  said  application  or  order 
the  doing  of  work  or  making  of  public  improvement,  after  having  first 
obtained  plans  and  estimates  thereof.  The  Board  may  also  in  like  manner 
recommend,  whenever  they  think  proper,  any  improvement  of  the  nature 
above  specified,  though  no  application  has  been  made  therefor. 

SEC.  7.  Shall  be  duty  of  Board  to  procure  for  city  full  plans  and  esti- 
mates of  contemplated  improvements,  when  so  ordered  by  Council. 

SEC.  8.  Whenever  any  public  improvement  shall  be  ordered  by  City 
Council,  and  money  appropriated,  Board  shall  advertise  for  proposals  for 
doing  work  ;  plans  and  specifications  of  same  first  placed  on  file  in  office 
of  Board,  which  plans  and  specifications  shall  be  open  to  public  inspection; 
advertisement  to  state  work  to  be  done,  and  to  be  published  ten  days  at 
least.  The  bids  shall  be  sealed  bids,  directed  to  Board,  and  accompanied 
by  bond  to  city,  signed  by  bidder  and  two  responsible  sureties,  in  sum  of 
$200,  conditioned  he  shall  do  work  if  awarded  to  him;  in  case  of  his  default 
to  do  so,  etc.  Bids  to  be  opened  at  time  and  place  mentioned  in  advertise- 
ment. 


ROADS.  337 

SEC.  9.  All  contracts  shall  be  awarded  to  lowest  reliable  bidder,  and 
who  sufficiently  guarantees  to  do  work  under  superintendence  and  to  satis- 
faction of  Board;  provided,  that  the  contract  price  does  not  exceed  the  esti- 
mate, or  such  other  sum  as  shall  be  satisfactory  to  Board.  Copies  of  con- 
tracts to  be  filed  with  City  Comptroller. 

SEC.  10.  Board  reserves  right,  in  contracts,  to  decide  questions  as  to 
proper  performance  of  work  and  meaning  of  contracts;  in  case  of  improper 
construction  may  suspend  work  and  re-let  same,  or  order  entire  reconstruc- 
tion; or  may  re-let  to  other  contractors  and  settle  for  work  done,  etc. 

In  cases  where  contractor  properly  does  work,  Board  may,  in  their  dis- 
cretion, as  work  progresses,  grant  to  said  contractor  estimate  of  amount 
already  earned,  reserving  15  per  cent,  therefrom,  which  shall  entitle  holder 
to  receive  amount,  all  other  conditions  being  satisfied. 

SEC.  ii.  In  case  prosecution  of  any  public  work  be  suspended,  or  bid  be 
deemed  excessive,  or  bidders  be  not  responsible,  Board  may,  with  written 
approval  of  treasurer,  where  urgency  of  case  and  interests  of  city  require 
it,  employ  workmen  to  perform  or  complete  any  improvement  ordered  by 
Council;  provided,  that  the  cost  and  expense  shall  in  no  case  exceed  the 
amount  appropriated  for  the  same. 

SEC.  12.  All  supplies  of  materials,  etc.,  when  costing  over  $500,  to  be 
purchased  by  contract,  subject  to  same  conditions  as  letting  out  work. 

SEC.  13.  Whenever  Board  think  necessary  for  interests  of  city,  to  pro- 
tect same  from  damage  or  loss,  shall  report  thus  to  aldermen,  and  reasons 
for  same,  asking  power  to  give  contracts  without  notice  required  above, 
and  aldermen  may  grant  request;  provided,  three-fourths  vote  for  it. 

SEC.  14.  Whenever  Board  is  of  opinion  work  may  be  better  done  with- 
out contract,  shall  so  report  to  Council,  and  same  may  authorize  Board  to 
procure  machinery,  materials,  etc.,  hire  workmen,  etc.;  provided,  a  three- 
fourths  vote  be  in  favor  ef  granting  authority. 

SEC.  15.  All  contracts  and  bonds  by  Board  to  be  in  name  of  city. 
SEC.  16.  No  member  to  be  interested  in  any  contract;  all  contracts 
made  with  any  member  interested,  city  may  declare  void;  any  member  so 
interested  shall  forfeit  his  office  and  be  removed  therefrom ;  the  duty  of 
every  member  of  Board  and  of  every  officer  of  city  to  report  delinquency, 
if  discovered. 

SEC.  17.  All  existing  contracts  executed  by  city,  by  water  or  sewerage 
department,  etc.,  to  be  carried  out  by  Board. 

SEC.  18.  Board  shall  nominate  each  year  the  various  officers,  now  pro- 
vided for  by  ordinance,  which  serve  in  the  departments  under  their  special 
charge,  the  city  engineer,  superintendents  sewers,  streets,  etc.  Shall  be 
empowered  to  employ  from  time  to  time  such  other  superintendents, 
clerks,  etc. ,  as  they  may  deem  necessary,  subject  to  ordinance  as  regards 
pay,  etc. 

SEC.  19.  Board  to  have  charge  and  superintendence  of  works  made  for 
city,  and  paid  for  by  private  individuals  or  by  State.  Plans  for  same  to  be 
approved  by  Board. 

SEC.  20.  Board  shall,  on  or  before every  year,  submit  to 

auditor,  by  him  to  be  presented  to  Council  with  annual  estimate,  statement 
of  the  repairs  and  improvements  necessary  to  be  undertaken  for  current 
year,  and  of  the  sums  required  by  Board  therefor  ;  report  to  be  in 


338  ROADS. 

detail ;  report,  having  been  revised  by  Council,  sums  required  shall  be  pro- 
vided for  in  annual  tax-levy.  All  moneys  to  be  paid  to  any  person  out  of 
moneys  so  raised,  shall  be  certified  by  president  of  Board  to  auditor,  who 
shall  draw  warrant  on  treasurer  therefor,  stating  to  whom  payable  and  to 
what  fund  chargeable;  such  warrant  to  be  countersigned  by  president  of 
Board. 

SEC.  21.  Board  to  keep  accounts,  showing  moneys  received  and  spent, 
clearly  and  distinctly,  and  for  what  purpose.  Accounts  to  be  always  open 
for  inspection  of  auditor  or  any  committee  appointed  by  City  Council. 

The  object  of  introducing  this  synopsis  here  has  been  to  give  a 
complete  picture  of  just  what  such  a  Board  of  Public  Works  is.  It 
will  be  seen  upon  a  little  examination  how  entirely  different  a  thing 
it  is  from  the  usual  and  only  too  customary  "committee."  Perhaps 
the  greatest  fault  of  a  committee  is  its  entire  lack  of  what  might  be 
called  body  and  soul.  If  corporations,  as  has  been  said,  have  no 
souls,  a  committee  may  be  said  to  have  neither  body  nor  soul.  It  is 
alive  to-day,  wields  great  power,  decides  vital  and  important  ques- 
tions, and  yet  is  nowhere  to-morrow,  and  seemingly  even  its  compo- 
nent atoms  have  vanished  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  It  is  amusing 
and  yet  sad,  when  the  action  of  some  such  committee  has  caused 
trouble  to  read  some  time  after,  that  it  all  "  is  exceedingly  discredit- 
able to  whoever  is  responsible  for  it."  How  much  better  to  have  a 
conservative,  expert  and  reliable  body,  the  members  of  which  have 
no  other  business  than  to  attend  to  their  duties  as  such,  who  are 
well  paid  for  it,  and  consequently  can  at  any  time  be  held  strictly 
responsible  for  their  actions.  With  such  a  power,  wisely  governing 
and  regulating  the  roads  of  this  Commonwealth,  it  would  be  an  easy 
matter  to  make  thorough  improvements  in  the  legislation  concerning 
roads  and  in  the  roads  themselves. 

These  are  two  changes  the  need  of  which  is  generally  felt  at 
present  and  has  found  expression  in  various  ways. 

It  may  be  well  to  quote  one  at  least,  notable  for  saying  very 
much  in  little  compass, — of  these  calls  for  improvement,  in  this  con- 
nection, and  adding  some  more  as  belonging  to  their  subject  in  the 
form  of  an  interesting  appendix.  Says  Governor  Claflin  in  his 
Inaugural :  "  Few  things  are  of  greater  importance  to  a  community, 
or  a  surer  test  of  civilization,  than  good  roads.  Those  of  our  citi- 
zens who  have  visited  Europe  are  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  our 
public  roads  are  far  inferior  to  those  of  other  countries,  where  the 
means  of  easy  and  safe  communication  are  better  appreciated.  The 
science  of  road-making  is  apparently  now  well  understood  ;  or,  if  it 
is,  the  present  modes  of  superintending  the  construction  and  repair 
of  roads  are  so  defective  that  the  public  suffers  to  an  extent  of 
which  few  of  us  are  aware.  It  may  be  found  upon  investigating  the 
cause  of  our  miserably  poor  and  ill-constructed  roads,  that  the  laws 


ROADS.  339 

relating  to  this  subject  need  revision,  so  as  to  give  more  uniformity 
in  their  construction  and  the  repair  of  our  highways.  It  is  evident, 
also,  that  the  science  of  road-making  should  have  a  prominent  place 
in  the  course  of  applied  mathematics  at  the  Massachusetts  Agricult- 
ural College." 

We  stand  in  this  matter  of  roads  at  precisely  the  same  point  that 
the  good  people  of  London  did  ten  or  a  dozen  years  ago  in  the 
matter  of  their  drainage,  and  our  remedy  is  the  same.  The  fault 
lies  in  the  machinery  of  Government ;  originally  built  up  to  cater  to 
the  wants  and  needs  of  a  newly  settled  country — a  colony  breaking 
a  path  through  the  wilderness — it  has  long  since  ceased  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  the  present  State  in  no  matter  so  essentially  as  in 
that  of  its  government  and  laws  relating  to  common  roads  and  high- 
ways. This  is  a  subject  requiring  special  knowledge,  to  be  acquired 
only  by  long  experience  or  the  shorter  method  of  imbibing  the  expe- 
rience of  others,  which  on  analyzing  it,  is  all  that  any  study  amounts 
to ;  formerly  it  was  not  so,  and  most  any  one  sufficed  to  make 
improvements  on  Indian  paths.  We  need  then  an  expert  govern- 
ment on  this  point. 

There  should  be  a  distinction  made  between  first,  second  and 
third  class,  or  between,  as  they  might  be  called,  State,  County  and 
Town  roads;  the  first  two  should  not  be  left  to  be  dealt  with  as  it  is 
the  pleasure  of  each  town.  A  chain  cannot  be  perfect  unless  every 
link  in  it  is  so  ;  no  more  can  a  road.  The  State  must  attend  to  the 
State  and  County  roads  and  set  a  proper  example  at  least  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  towns  in  the  case  of  their  roads.  We  need  then  a 
higher  power  than  that  of  the  towns. 

It  has  been  previously  shown  how  we  need  a  power  that  can  be 
held  responsible  and  is  somewhat  permanent,  and  to  put  it  all 
together,  we  need,  to  order  and  maintain  our  highways,  a  Massachu- 
setts Board  of  Public  Works.  For  some  years,  it  would  have  its 
hands  full  in  improving  the  existing  main  roads  and  laying  out  some 
new  ones,  but  in  course  of  time,  as  in  the  older  countries  of  Europe, 
its  principal  business  would  be  the  maintenance  of  the  roads.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  Board  of  Public  Works  is  merely  the 
intelligent  servant  and  adviser  of  the  legislative  and  executive  ; 
whatever  sums  the  Legislature  appropriates  for  certain  objects,  that 
is  taken  by  the  Board  and  made  to  yield  its  most  in  the  shape  of 
work  accomplished.  Beyond  this  and  keeping  its  accounts,  it  has 
nothing  to  do  with  money  or  taxation. 

The  small  State  of  Baden,  a  part  of  Germany,  has  been  hereto- 
fore mentioned  as  a  model  in  road  construction  and  the  care  of  the 
same.  From  the  brief  history  of  the  roads  of  that  country  and  their 
repsent  management,  we  may  take  some  useful  notes.  The  account 


34°  ROADS. 

is  that  of  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the  department  of  "  Roads  and  Hy- 
draulic Engineering,"  which  has  this  matter  in  charge  and  is  there- 
fore reliable. 

"  In  Baden  the  condition  of  the  roads  has  been  the  subject  of 
great  care.  Within  the  last  forty-five  years  many  millions  have  been 
spent  upon  them  and  experience  has  shown  this  expenditure  to  be 
one  of  those  most  advantageously  spent.  As  most  of  the  roads  are 
well  laid  out  and  as  there  are  plenty  of  them,  there  remains  now 
(1863)  mainly  the  keeping  in  repair  of  the  roads  to  be  attended  to 
and  not  to  build  any  new  ones.  Our  endeavor  now  is  to  do  this  at 
the  minimum  of  cost.  Statistics  gathered  on  this  subject  show  good 
results  and  point  out  to  us  the  means  of  arriving  at  still  better  ones. 
The  present  road  law  was  made  in  1810.  That  part  of  the  old  law 
which  relates  to  the  maintenance  of  roads  is  still  in  force,  but  that 
part  requiring  labor  as  a  road-tax  was  abolished  in  1831,  and  likewise 
most  of  the  road  police  regulations.  The  appropriation  for  roads 
had  to  be  increased  250,000  florins  to  pay  for  the  abolished  road-tax 
labor  and  to  make  up  170,000  florins  previously  received  from  tolls, 
which  were  also  abolished  in  1831.  The  system  now  is  as  follows  : 
All  town  roads  are  taken  care  of  by  the  towns.  The  State  merely 
appoints  and  pays  a  roadmaster,  so  called,  who  superintends  fifteen 
or  twenty  roadkeepers  and  reports  on  the  state  of  the  roads,  the 
reasons  for  their  bad  condition,  if  that  be  the  case,  what  is  needed, 
etc.  The  law  for  second-class  or  county  roads  was  formerly,  that 
when  they  were  of  importance  to  several  towns,  they  had  all  to  help 
maintain  the  same.  As  this  gave  rise  to  continual  bickering  and 
quarrelling,  in  which  the  road  suffered  most,  it  was  changed  in  1856. 
They  are  now  taken  care  of  under  the  direction  of  the  State  and 
paid  for  partly  by  the  State  and  partly  by  the  towns  in  which  they 
are  situated.  Most  of  the  roads  under  this  head  are  those  which 
have  risen  in  importance  since  the  building  of  railroads,  and  are 
generally  those  that  lie  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  railroad 
they  are  influenced  by.  The  towns  not  having  the  means  very  often 
to  properly  improve  and  repair  such,  it  was  found  necessary  and  ex- 
pedient to  give  them  the  aid  of  the  State,  and  in  order  to  procure 
the  necessary  funds,  all  roads  that  run  parallel  to  railroads  and  all 
those  that  had  lost  their  importance  by  the  construction  of  railroads, 
were  in  1855  stricken  from  the  list  as  State  roads.  These  latter,  as 
the  name  implies,  are  wholly  under  the  care  and  kept  up  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  State.  Table  XI.  gives  the  total  lengths  of  the  roads 
at  various  periods. 


ROADS. 


341 


TABLE  XI. 

In  1835,  the  total  length  of  the  State  roads  was 1,430.8  English  miles. 

In  1855,         "  **  '*          "  "         1,500.8 

In  1855,  by  excluding  several  State  roads,  this  last 

length  was  reduced  to 1.142.4        " 

In  1 861,  it  had  increased  to 1,190.0        " 

Second-class  roads  (keeping  partly  paid  for  by  State). 

In  1835,  the  length  of  these  was , . .  467.6  English  miles. 

In  1861,  the  length  of  these  was 630.0        "  " 

The  areas,  population,  and  population  per  square  mile  of  Baden, 
Prussia,  France,  Hanover  and  Massachusetts,  according  to  recent 
census,  are  as  follows  : 


Country. 

Year. 

Area, 
Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

Population 
per 
Sq.  Mile. 

Baden 

1871 

5,891 

1,461,562 

248 

Prussia 

1871 

134,045 

14,643,698 

184 

France  

1872 

204,088 

36,102,921 

177 

Hanover  

1871 

14.857 

1,963,080 

132 

Massachusetts  

1875 

7,800 

1,651,912 

212 

Baden  did  have,  at  the  time  when  her  population  per  square 
mile  was  less  than  it  is  now,  and  Prussia,  France,  Hanover  and 
many  other  countries  that  could  be  named,  have  now  got,  and  for 
the  past  40  or  50  years  have  had,  a  system  of  common  road  manage- 
ment and  resultant  common  roads,  of  the  character  above  described; 
while  Massachusetts  with  a  population  of  212  per  square  mile,  and 
corresponding  wealth,  and  others  of  the  States  of  the  Union,  have 
a  species  of  highway  management,  and  its  resultant  and  correspond- 
ing sort  of  highways,  which,  in  thinking  of  the  roads  of  the  coun- 
tries named,  are  but  as  evidences  of  a  partial  civilization. 

"  So  that  the  State  had,  in  1861,  in  all,  1,820  English  miles  of 
road  to  maintain,  the  towns  helping  to  pay  on  630  miles  thereof.  * 

*  According  to  "Chambers'  Encyclopaedia,"  Baden  has  an  area  of 
about  5,900  square  miles,  and  had  a  population  in  1858  of  1,335,952.  It  is 
probably  this,  or  a  little  less,  at  the  present  time.  Massachusetts  has  an 
area  of  about  7,800  square  miles,  and,  according  to  the  average  of  the  com- 
puted populations  in  the  supplementary  tables  of  the  census  of  1865,  it  is, 
in  1870,  1,343,604. 

Or,  population  per  square  mile  in  Baden =  226.43 

"  "  "  "     in  Massachusetts =  172.26 

By  the  same  tables,  accompanying  the  State  census  of  1865,  we  find 
that  the  population  per  square  mile  in  Massachusetts  will  equal  that  of 
Baden,  above  given,  somewhere  between  1890  and  1891.  It  exceeds  that  of 
Prussia,  and  probably  equals  that  of  France  at  the  present  day,  both  of 
which  countries  have  systems  of  roads  and  road-repairing  but  little,  if  any, 
inferior  to  those  of  Baden. 


342  ROADS. 

"  The  statistics  of  the  road  repairs  are  kept  in  the  following 
manner:  The  roadkeepers  are  required  to  keep  a  record  of  all 
draught  animals  that  pass  in  either  direction.  Horses  that  are  being 
ridden,  animals  not  before  a  vehicle,  and  teams  going  to  and  from 
the  fields,  are  not  counted.  These  records  are  kept  only  during  the 
working  hours.  Likewise,  not  during  the  whole  year,  but  only  four 
months  in  each  year,  so  selected  as  to  give  an  average  amount  of 
travel.  The  travel  on  the  road  on  Sundays  and  out  of  working 
hours  is  taken  from  a  few  observations  ;  it  is  a  very  small  percentage 
of  the  whole.  At  the  end  of  the  year  these  records  and  observations 
are  collected  and  graphically  represented  on  a  map  of  the  whole 
State.  The  different  roads  are  drawn  of  a  different  thickness  of 
line,  according  as  the  amount  of  travel  on  them  is  greater  or  less. 
The  quantity  of  road  metal  used  per  yard  of  road,  and  the  kind  of 
metal  used,  give  the  data  for  another  such  map,  in  which  the  differ- 
ent colors  of  the  roads  represent  the  different  materials  used  in  their 
repair,  and  the  figures  on  them  and  their  thickness  show  the  number 
of  cubic  yards  per  mile  required  to  keep  the  road  in  order.  Finally, 
we  have  a  third  map,  which  indicates,  by  the  thickness  of  the  several 
lines  representing  the  roads  and  by  the  figures  on  them,  the  total 
cost  per  mile  of  repairing  the  road  one  year." 

With  this  picture  of  a  country  happy  and  prosperous,  in  the 
possession  of  good  and  well  kept  roads,  it  may  be  well  to  leave  the 
subject. 

Massa'chusetts  wants,  for  her  proper  development,  much  better 
roads  than  she  now  has;  and  reckoning  for  a  period  of,  say  fifty  years, 
she  can  have  these  good  roads,  and  have  them  kept  in  order  at  a 
less  cost  than  that  of  keeping  up  the  present  poor  ones  for  the  same 
time.  Besides  this,  we  should  see  in  the  one  case  a  healthy  state  of 
internal  communications  and  trade  ;  in  the  other  an  absence  of  both. 
Let  each  citizen  so  act  and  do  his  part,  that  these  benefits  may 
accrue  to  the  Commonwealth. 

NOTE      BY      THE      SECRETARY     OF     THE     MASSACHUSETTS     BOARD     OF 

AGRICULTURE. 

For  the  sake  of  arriving  at  some  practical  end,  I  have  requested 
the  gentlemen  to  whom  the  prizes  for  essays  were  awarded,  to  sug- 
gest what  form  of  legislation  would  be  desirable  as  a  change,  from 
our  present  inefficient  system  of  road  management,  to  one  which 
would  promise  better,  more  economical,  and  more  satisfactory 
results.  The  large  and  varied  experience  and  observation  of  these 
gentlqmen,  all  of  whom  are  competent  engineers,  entitle  their  opin- 
ions and  judgment  to  favorable  consideration;  and  the  following,  sub- 
mitted by  them,  may  serve  as  a  basis  or  outline  for  future  legislation: 


ROADS.  343 

AN  AC '7'  for  tJie  More  Perfect  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  the 
Common  Roads  or  Highways  Throughout  this  Commonwealth 
(Massachusetts), 

SECTION  i.  Establishes  a  body  to  be  known  as  the  State  Board  of 
Highways  and  Bridges,  to  consist  of  three  skillful  civil  engineers,  or  per- 
sons practically  expert  in  the  science  of  road-making,  to  be  appointed  by 
the  Governor,  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Council,  and  to  have  their 
office  in  the  State  House. 

SEC.  2.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Attorney-General,  personally  or  by 
his  deputy,  to  give  his  counsel  and  opinion  on  such  matters  as  he  may  be 
called  upon  by  the  Board,  for  which  service  his  compensation  shall  be 

SEC.  3.  The  first  appointment  of  members  of  the  Board  of  Highways 
and  Bridges  shall  be  made  on  or  before  ,  and  there  shall  be 

appointed  one  member  each  for  the  terms  of  one,  two,  and  three  years;  after 
that  there  shall  on  or  before  each  year  be  appointed  one  mem- 

ber for  the  term  of  three  years. 

SEC.  4.  Each  member  of  the  Board  shall  receive  an  annual  salary  of 
dollars  ;  give  bonds  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duties  ;  pay 
over  all  moneys,  papers,  etc.,  at  the  expiration  of  his  term,  or  when  ordered 
by  the  Governor  and  Council. 

SEC.  5.  Board  are  to  elect  a  president  and  treasurer,  and  make  their 
own  by-laws. 

SEC.  6.  A  majority  of  the  Board  constitutes  a  quorum ;  records  to  be 
kept  of  all  the  proceedings  ;  copies  of  all  plans,  estimates,  etc.,  to  be  kept ; 
report  to  be  rendered  on  or  before  each  year,  or  when  required 

by  the  Governor  and  Council.  Each  member  authorized  to  administer 
legal  oaths. 

SEC.  7.  Said  Board  shall  prepare  and  submit  to  the  Legisla- 

ture a  plan  for  the  systematic  classification  of  all  the  highways  and 
townways  in  this  Commonwealth  into  two  or  more  of  the  following  three 
classes: 

Class  i.  State  roads,  to  be  controlled  and  maintained  wholly  by  the 
State. 

Class  2.  District  roads,  to  be  controlled  and  maintained  by  the  State, 
but  the  expense  thereof  to  be  borne  by  the  towns  and  cities  of  the  districts 
in  which  said  road  shall  lie,  and  the  State,  in  such  proportions  as  said  Board 
shall  apportion. 

Class  3.  Town  roads  to  be  controlled  and  maintained  as  now  provided 
by  law. 

The  construction  ot  new  road  roads,  of  the  three  classes  above  speci- 
fied, to  be  done  as  follows: 

Class  i.  State  roads,  to  be  laid  out  and  built  by  the  State,  through  the 
Board  of  Highways  and  Bridges. 

Class  2.  District  roads,  to  be  laid  out,  etc.,  by  the  County  Commission- 
ers, as  now  provided,  but  the  Board  to  have  the  final  approval  or  disap- 
proval of  the  proposed  plans  and  profiles  for  said  road,  and  also  to  have  the 
charge  and  superintendence  of  their  construction. 

Parties  aggrieved  by  the  refusal  or  neglect  of  County  Commissioners 
to  lay  out  a  road,  to  have  the  right  to  appeal  to  the  Board  of  Highways. 

Class  3.  Town  roads,  to  be  laid  out  and  constructed  as  now  provided 
by  law. 


344  ROADS. 

SEC.  8.  The  paying  of  road  taxes  by  labor  is  hereby  abolished,  and  all 
road  taxes  are  hereafter  to  be  paid  in  cash. 

SEC.  9.  Board  shall  have  the  special  charge  and  superintendence,  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  and  resolves  of  this  Commonwealth,  of  all  the  highways 
and  bridges  and  the  public  works  appertaining  thereto,  which  are  or  shall 
be  executed  or  maintained  wholly  or  in  part  by  this  Commonwealth.  They 
shall  also  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  required  of  them  by  the 
General  Court  or  the  Governor  and  Council. 

SEC.  10.  Whenever  any  highway  or  bridge,  or  public  work  appertain- 
ing to  these  two,  shall  come  partly  within  the  province  of  this  Board  and 
partly  within  that  of  any  other  State  Board  already  constituted,  then  such 
subject  shall  be  discussed  and  decided  upon  in  a  joint  convention  or  con- 
ventions, composed  of  equal  numbers  of  this  and  the  said  other  State  Board, 
and  some  member  by  them  chosen  as  presiding  officer. 

SEC.  ii.  All  applications  or  propositions  for  improvements  or  new 
works  of  the  kind  specified  in  section  nine  as  coming  within  the  province  of 
this  Board  of  Highways  and  Bridges,  and  intended  to  be  laid  before  the 
Legislature,  shall  hereafter  be  first  made  to  this  Board.  Upon  receiving 
such  application,  Board  shall  investigate  same,  and  if  they  find  such  work 
necessary  and  proper,  shall  thus  report  to  the  Legislature,  with  an  estimate 
of  the  expense  thereof  ;  if  they  do  not  approve  of  such  application,  they 
shall  report  their  reasons  for  their  disapproval. 

The  Board  may  also,  in  like  manner  recommend,  whenever  they  think 
proper,  any  improvements  of  the  kind  above  specified,  though  no  applica- 
tion has  been  made  therefor. 

SEC.  12.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Board  to  procure  for  the  Legislature 
full  plans  and  estimates  of  contemplated  works  or  improvements  when  so 
ordered  by  the  Legislature. 

SEC.  13.  Whenever  any  work  shall  have  been  authorized  or  ordered  by 
the  General  Court  and  the  money  appropriated  therefor,  Board  shall  adver- 
tise for  proposals  for  doing  said  work;  plans  and  specifications  of  the  same 
first  to  be  placed  on  file  in  office  of  Board,  which  plans  and  specifica- 
tions shall  be  open  to  public  inspection;  advertisement  to  state  work  to  be 
done,  and  to  be  published  ten  (10)  days  at  least.  The  bids  shall  be  sealed 
bids,  directed  to  Board  and  accompanied  by  bonds  to  the  Commonwealth, 
signed  by  bidder  and  two  responsible  sureties,  in  sum  of  two  hundred  (200) 
dollars,  conditioned  he  shall  do  the  work  if  awarded  to  him,  in  case  of  his 
default  to  do  so,  forfeits,  etc.  Bids  to  be  opened  at  time  and  place  men- 
tioned in  advertisement. 

SEC.  14.  All  contracts  shall  be  awarded  to  the  lowest  responsible  bid- 
der, and  who  sufficiently  guarantees  to  do  work  under  superintendence  and 
to  satisfaction  of  Board  ;  provided  that  the  contract  price  does  not  exceed 
the  estimate  or  such  other  sum  as  shall  be  satisfactory  to  Board.  Copies 
of  contracts  to  be  filed  with  State  Auditor. 

SEC.  15.  Board  reserves  right  in  contracts  to  decide  questions  as  to 
proper  performance  of  work  and  meaning  of  contracts;  in  case  of  improper 
construction  may  suspend  work  and  relet  the  same;  or  order  entire  re-con- 
struction; or  may  relet  to  other  contractors  and  settle  for  work  done,  etc. 
In  cases  where  contractor  properly  does  work,  Board  may  in  their  discre- 
tion as  work  progresses,  grant  to  said  contractors  estimates  of  amount 
already  earned,  reserving  15  per  cent,  therefrom,  which  shall  entitle  holder 
to  receive  amount,  all  other  conditions  being  satisfied. 


ROADS.  345 

SEC.  16.  In  cass  prosecution  of  any  public  work  be  suspended,  or  bid 
be  deemed  excessive,  or  bidders  be  not  responsible,  Board  may,  with  written 
approval  of  Governor,  where  the  urgency  of  the  case,  or  interests  of  the 
Commonwealth  require  it,  employ  workmen  to  perform  or  complete  any 
work  ordered  by  the  Legislature,  provided  that  the  cost  and  expense  shall 
in  no  case  exceed  the  amount  appropriated  for  the  same. 

SEC.  17.  All  supplies  of  materials,  etc.,  when  costing  over  five  hundred 
(500)  dollars,  to  be  purchased  by  contract,  subject  to  same  conditions  as 
letting  out  work. 

SEC.  1 8.  Whenever  Board  thinks  necessary,  for  interests  of  the  Com- 
monwealth, to  protect  same  from  damage  or  loss,  shall  report  thus  to 
Governor  and  Council  and  reasons  for  same,  asking  power  to  give  contracts 
without  notice  required  above,  and  Governor  and  Council  may  grant  request, 
provided  three-fourths  vote  for  it. 

SEC.  19.  Whenever  Board  is  of  opinion  a  work  may  be  done  better  with- 
out a  contract,  shall  so  report  to  Legislature,  and  they  shall  procure  mach- 
inery, materials,  etc.,  hire  workmen,  etc.,  to  do  said  work,  whenever  so 
authorized  by  the  Legislature. 

SEC.  20.  All  contracts  and  bonds  by  Board  to  be  in  the  name  of  the 
Commonwealth. 

SEC.  21.  No  member  of  the  Board  to  be  interested  in  any  contract;  all 
contracts  made  with  any  member  interested,  Governor  may  declare  void, 
and  shall  remove  such  member  so  interested  from  office.  It  is  the  duty  of 
every  member  of  the  Board  and  every  officer  of  the  Commonwealth  to  report 
any  such  delinquency,  if  discovered. 

SEC.  22.  Board  shall  be  empowered  to  employ  such  engineers,  clerks  or 
other  assistants,  as  shall  be  provided  for  by  the  Legislature. 

SEC.  23.  Board  shall,  on  or  before  eveiy  year,  submit  to 

the  Auditor,  by  him  to  be  presented  to  the  Legislature  with  his  annual 
estimate,  a  statement  of  the  repairs  and  new  work  needed  for  the  current 
year,  and  of  the  sums  required  by  the  Board  therefor;  report  to  be  in 
detail;  all  sums  appropriated  therefor  to  be  included  in  the  annual  tax- 
levy. 

SEC.  24.  All  moneys  to  be  paid  to  any  person  out  of  moneys  so  raised, 
shall  be  certified  by  President  of  Board  to  Auditor,  who  shall  draw  warrant 
on  Treasurer  therefor,  stating  to  whom  payable,  and  to  what  fund  charge- 
able; such  warrant  to  be  countersigned  by  President  of  Board. 

SEC.  25.  Board  to  keep  accounts,  showing  moneys  received  and  spent 
clearly  and  distinctly,  and  for  what  purpose.  Accounts  to  be  always  open 
for  inspection  of  Auditor  or  any  committee  appointed  by  the  Legislature. 

NOTE. — In  the  year  following  the  printing  of  these  essays,  Massa- 
chusetts abolished  the  payment  of  road  taxes  in  labor.  (See  Sec.  8  above.) 
Towns  have  also  been  authorized  to  appoint "  superintendents  of  highways." 
Other  plans  for  the  improvement  of  common  roads  are  still  (1870)  a  matter 
of  public  discussion  and  agitation.  The  politic  thing  to  have  done  in  1870, 
would  have  been,  plainly,  to  have  recommended  the  appointment  of  an 
expert  commission  to  revise  the  road  laws  of  the  State,  and  to  submit  such 
revision  to  the  Legislature.  And  such  a  course  remains  a  desirable  one 
to  pursue  at  the  present  day  in  Massachusetts  and  in  other  of  the  States  of 
the  Union. 


PART    III. 


THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD'S 


PRIZE   ESSAYS   ON 


ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  PART  III. 


The  following  from  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record  of 
March  29,  1890,  refers  to  the  matter  found  on  the  following  pages  : 

The  Competition  for  Essays  on  Road  Making  and  Maintenance 
instituted  by  Tfa  Engineering  and  Building  Record  has,  like  the 
Competition  for  Water  Tower  and  Pumping  Station  designs,  proved 
very  successful.  The  competition  closed  March  i,  and  the  21  essays 
received  have  in  the  intervening  time  received  the  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  Committee  of  Award. 

At  a  time  when  there  is  such  a  general  awakening  to  the  impor- 
tance of  having  good  roads  this  valuable  contribution  to  the  literature 
of  the  subject  is  most  opportune.  In  addition  to  the  prize  essays, 
which  will  be  published  in  successive  issues  of  this  journal,  we  are 
happy  to  announce  a  discussion  of  certain  features  in  the  several 
essays  by  the  Committee  of  Award,  which,  in  view  of  the  experi- 
ence of  these  gentlemen,  will  add  materially  to  the  practical  results 
of  this  competition.  The  following  is  the  report  of  the  Committee  : 
To  the  Editor  of  THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD  : 

The  Committee  invited  by  you  to  award  prizes  amounting  to  $150  for 
Essays  on  Road  Construction  and  Maintenance  have  examined  the  21  papers 
submitted  to  them,  and  make  the  award  as  follows  : 
"  CESA."  First  Prize,  $75. 

S.  C.  THOMPSON,  832  East  One  Hundred  and  Sixty-first  Street,  New 

York  City. 
"  BONA  VIA,  BONUM  OPUS."  Second  Prize,  $50. 

I.  F.  POPE,  905  Brazos  Street,  Austin,  Tex. 
"  A  SIMPLE  SCRATCH."  Third  Prize,  $25. 

JOHN  P.  PRITCHARD,  Quincy,  Mass. 

Also  as  worthy  of  Honorable  Mention,  abstracts  of  each  to  be  published, 
we  would  name  the  following  : 
"GRANITE  STATE." 

PROF.  JOHN  V.  HAZEN,  Chandler  Scientific  School,  Hanover,  N.  H. 
••  PALISADES." 

SAMUEL  L.  COOPER,  Engineer  Finance  Department,  City  of  New  York. 
"  ROY." 

FRANK  B.  SANBORN,  Brookline,  Mass. 
"ZAMORA." 

A.  T.  BYRNE,  Civil  and  Mining  Engineer,  361  Fulton  Street,  Brooklyn, 

N.  Y. 

As  a  brief  declaration  of  principles,  "  TO  THE  POINT,"  A.  L. 
PHILLIPS,  Pencoyd,  Pa.,  is  also  worthy  of  publication. 

The  result  of  this  competition  is  a  matter  for  congratulation,  and  the 
essays  are,  as  a  whole,  a  contribution  to  the  literature  on  this  important 
subject  both  valuable  and  practical.  We  do  not  wish,  however,  to  be  under- 
stood as  indorsing  every  proposition  made  in  any  one  of  the  papers. 

At  a  future  time  we  will  submit  a  brief  criticism  that  we  think  should 
go  on  record  with  the  essays  herewith  recommended  for  publication. 

F.  COLLINGWOOD, 

EDWARD  P.  NORTH, 
JAMES  OWEN. 


ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE.* 

BY  S.  C.  THOMPSON  ("  CESA  "),  NEW  YORK 

In  writing  upon  this  subject,  it  is  the  intention  of  the  author  to 
treat  the  different  matters  under  consideration,  so  as  to  present  the 
method  of  doing  the  work,  and  the  reasons  for  it,  in  a  manner  to  be 
easily  grasped  by  the  popular  mind,  rather  than  to  collate  and 
arrange  information  for  the  professional  reader. 

Commencing  with  Road  Construction  it  can  be  divided  into — 
first,  locating,  or  laying  the  road  ;  second,  making  the  road-bed, 
which  includes  all  earth-work,  drainage,  and  everything  necessary 
to  get  the  foundation  in  proper  shape  ;  and  third,  surfacing,  or 
making  the  top  of  the  road. 

Location. — First  let  us  see  what  are  the  elements  which  effect 
the  location  of  a  road,  and  upon  what  is  the  location  of  a  road 
dependent. 

The  problem  in  its  simplest  form  is,  of  course,  given  two  or 
more  points  to  be  connected  by  a  road-way,  without  any  limitations 
whatever,  but  the  usual  considerations  which  determine  where  a 
road  shall  be  built  are  often  varied  and  troublesome. 

Elements  that  Determine  Location. — Taking  them  in  the  order 
which  they  are  likely  to  occur,  we  have,  first,  the  amount  of  money 
that  can  be  expended,  and  as  a  necessary  part  of  this,  and  largely 
determined  by  it;  second,  the  allowable  grades,  and  maximum  curves 
permissible. 

Select  Best  Possible  Route. — When  it  has  been  determined  to 
connect  two  places  with  a  road,  the  best  possible  route  over  which 
to  build  the  road  should  be  determined,  and  then  the  construction 
should  conform  as  nearly  as  the  contingent  circumstances  will  per- 
mit to  the  location  laid  down. 

Make  the  line  as  nearly  straight  as  practicable,  and  when 
changes  of  line  occur  connect  them  by  regular  curves  of  proper 
radius. 

When  the  line  is  intended  to  be  straight  make  it  so  absolutely. 

Curves. — Where  curves  are  required  make  them  as  flat  as  pos- 
sible, and  on  a  first-class  road  where  long  trucks  or  loads  are  liable 
to  come,  only  in  extreme  cases  should  it  exceed  a  curve  of  50  feet 
radius. 

*  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record  Competition. — First  Prize 
Essay. 


35° 


ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE. 


Minimum  Radius  to  Curve. — On  mountainous  roads  it  some- 
times becomes  necessary  to  increase  the  curve  to  a  radius  of  20  feet. 

Heavy  Traffic  vs.  Passenger  Service. — In  discussing  the  question 
of  permissible  grades  it  will,  perhaps,  be  best  to  consider  the  road- 
ways as  being  used  for  two  specific  purposes,  one,  where  heavy 
traffic  has  to  be  provided  for,  and  the  other  where  passenger  service 
is  of  the  greatest  importance,  or,  as  it  might  be  designated,  loads 
vs.  time.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  when  the  conditions 
necessary  for  the  first  are  complied  with,  the  second  are  met  equally 
well. 

To  Determine  Grades. — To  determine  what  grades  can  be 
allowed,  it  becomes  necessary  to  see  what  difference  in  results  are 
caused  by  a  difference  in  inclination. 

Reduction  of  Draught  by  Increase  of  Inclination. — A  man  can 
walk  up  a  slope  of  100  in  120,  and  a  horse  or  mule  can  ascend  an 
incline  of  100  in  175,  and  it  has  been  found  by  experiment  that  a 
horse  pulling  his  maximum  load  on  a  level,  can  pull  but  ^  as  much 
if  the  slope  is  made  i  in  50,  and  this  gradually  lessens  until  with  a 
slope  of  i  in  10  he  can  draw  but  ^  as  much  as  his  level  load,  or  to 
make  it  more  complete,  see  the  following  table  made  from  experi- 
ments by  Gayffier  *  and  Parnell  f  upon  French  and  English  roads, 
the  results  of  the  latter  being  the  average  of  three  velocities,  calling 
the  load  which  a  horse  can  draw  on  a  level  100. 


On  a  rise  of 


Experiments  of  Gayffier  and  Parnell. 

in  100  a  horse  can  draw  only 90* 

81* 

72 

64 

541 


50 
40 
30 
26 

20 
10 


.40 

•25' 


Experiments  of  Sir  Henry  Parnell  to  find  Draught  Required. — 
And  as  the  capacity  for  draught  is  limited  by  the  steepest  grade,  no 
slope  should  be  allowed  up  which  a  fair  load  cannot  be  drawn.  The 
experiments  of  Sir  Henry  Parnell  show  that  to  draw  a  stage  coach 
over  the  same  road,  having  different  degrees  of  inclination,  the  fol- 
lowing results  were  obtained  : 

FORCE  OF  DRAUGHT  REQUIRED. — LEVEL  ROAD  CALLED  IOO. 


Inclination. 

At  6  miles  per  hour. 

At  8  miles  per  hour. 

At  10  miles  per  hour. 

i  in  20 

268 

296 

318 

I     »     26 

213 

219 

225 

i   "   30 

165 

196 

200 

i   "  40 

IOO 

166 

172 

i   "600 

III 

120 

128 

ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE.          351 

No  Counter  Grades  to  be  Allowed. — In  laying  out  a  road,  with 
regard  to  grades,  have  a  continuous  inclination  in  one  direction,  and 
do  not  allow  any  counter  grades,  for  in  ascending,  each  foot 
descended  on  a  counter  grade,  means  just  so  much  more  rise  to  be 
overcome. 

Divide  Roads  in  Classes  According  to  Grades. — Different  writers 
have  proposed  to  divide  the  roads  into  classes,  and  limit  the  grade 
for  each  class.  In  some  cases  the  grades  are  fixed  by  law. 

The  maximum  grade  established  by  the  French  Government 
Board  of  Engineers  is  i  in  20.*  The  Holyhead  Road  in  Wales  uses 
i  in  30  as  a  maximum,  except  in  two  cases.  The  road  over  the 
Simplon  Pass  averages  1.22  on  Italian  side,  and  i  to  17  on  Swiss 
side,  with  one  case  of  i  to  13,  and  in  this  State  several  turnpike 
roads  are  limited  by  law  i  in  n. 

HerscheVs  Classification  of  Roads.— C.  Herschel,  M.  A.  S.  C.  E., 
in  his  prize  Essay  on  the  Science  of  Road-Making, f  proposes  to 
divide  in  three  classes — viz.,  State,  county  and  town  roads,  and 
limit  the  inclinations,  first,  3  to  5  in  100;  second,  5  to  7  in  100; 
third,  7  to  10  in  100, 

Prof.  S.  F.  Miller  J  suggests  making  them  of  two  classes,  the 
first  not  to  have  a  gradient  of  more  than  i  in  20,  and  the  second  not 
to  exceed  i  in  10. 

Vertical  Rise  Equivalent  to  Lengthening  Roads — A  vertical  rise  is 
equivalent  to  an  increase  in  the  length  of  the  road  proportional  to 
the  angle  of  inclination. 

Equivalent  Length  of  Level  Road;  Experiments  of  Sir  John  Mac- 
Neil. — The  force  expended  in  carrying  a  given  load  from  any  point 
to  another  at  a  higher  elevation,  is  equal  to  the  force  of  traction 
together  with  the  force  necessary  to  lift  the  load  to  the  elevation 
attained.  Experiments  made  by  Sir  John  MacNeil  show  that  a 
wagon  loaded  with  six  tons,  drawn  three  miles  per  hour,  upon  a  slope 
of  i  to  30,  one  mile  is  equivalent  to  2.7  level  miles,  and  for  a  stage 
coach  weighing  three  tons,  drawn  six  miles  per  hour,  the  equivalent 
level  road  for  one  mile  is  1.62  miles. 

On  Long  Incline  Have  First  Portion  Steepest. — Where  a  long 
incline  becomes  necessary  it  will  be  found  economical  to  make  the 
first  portion  the  steepest  and  decrease  it  as  it  ascends,  and  if  the 
slope  can  be  varied  by  occasional  level  stretches  the  efficiency  of 
the  road  will  be  greatly  increased. 

The  road-bed  on  steep  slopes  is  subject  to  greater  wear  from 
the  feet  of  horses  in  ascending,  and  is  much  more  subject  to  serious 
erosion  by  heavy  rains. 

*  Gillespie's  Roads  and  Railroads,  p.  42. 

f  Report  to  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1860-1870. 

\  Massachusetts  State  Report,  1860-1870. 


35^  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND   MAINTENANCE. 

Minimum  Grade. — Where  the  inclination  of  the  road  is  not 
greater  than  i  in  33  it  will  not  pay  to  materially  increase  the  length 
to  reduce  nearer  to  a  level.  So  far,  in  treating  grades  they  have 
been  considered^  obstacles  to  ascent,  and  we  will  further  consider 
how  they  may  be  obstacles  to  descent. 

Experiments  of  Sir  Henry  P  am  ell  and  Dr.  Lardner  on  Angle 
of  Repose. — On  a  descent  the  inclination  should  not  exceed  the  angle 
of  repose  for  a  vehicle,  which  varies  according  to  the  road-bed,  from 
i  in  40  to  i  in  10.  On  a  road  with  a  slope  just  sufficient  so  that 
the  force  of  gravity  would  overcome  the  friction,  a  loaded  vehicle 
would  descend  with  unaccelerated  velocity  and  a  considerable  speed 
could  safely  be  maintained  in  descending. 

If  the  inclination  is  materially  steeper  than  as  shown  above,  so 
that  a  speed  of  only  one-half  or  one-third  as  much  can  be  safely 
maintained,  it  would  be  equally  cheap  to  have  a  level  road  that  was 
twice  or  three  times  as  long. 

To  Ascertain  Angle  of  Repose. — The  angle  of  repose,  for  any 
given  road-bed,  can  be  easily  ascertained  from  the  draught  upon  a 
level,  with  the  same  character  of  surface;  that  is,  if  the  force  neces- 
sary, on  a  level,  to  overcome  friction  is  ^  of  the  load,  then  the  same 
fraction  expresses  the  angle  of  repose,  for  that  surface. 

WIDTH    OF    ROADS. 

The  proper  width  of  roads  and  road-beds  are  matters  which 
ordinarily  receive  little  attention.  A  road-bed  is  frequently  con- 
structed so  wide  as  to  add  so  much  to  the  cost  of  maintenance  as  to 
render  it  impracticable  to  keep  it  in  proper  repair. 

Revised  Statutes  of  New  York  Fixing  Width  of  Public  Roads. — 
The  revised  Statutes  of  New  York  State  require  all  public  roads  laid 
out  by  the  Commissioners  of  Highways  to  be  not  less  than  three 
rods  wide,  and  require  "  all  roads  that  have  been  used  as  public 
highways  for  20  years  to  be  opened  to  two  rods  at  least" 

English  Roads. — In  England  turnpike  roads  are  obliged  by 
statute  to  be  laid  out  four  rods  wide,  and  22  feet  wide  to  be  bedded 
with  stone. 

Roman  Military  Roads. — The  Roman  Military  Roads  were 
established  12  feet  in  width  when  straight,  and  16  feet  when 
crooked. 

Classification  by  French  Engineers. — French  engineers  make 
four  classes  of  roads  :  First,  66,  22  stoned  ;  second,  52,  20  stoned  ; 
third,  33,  16  stoned  ;  fourth,  26,  16  stoned. 

In  England  turnpike  roads  near  towns  are  60  feet  wide,  by-roads 
20  feet  wide. 

Holy  head  Road. — The  width  of  the  Holyhead  Road  varies  from 
32  feet  where  level  to  22  feet  in  precipitous  places. 


ROAD   CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  353 

Ffffct  of  too  Wide  Roadway. — Where  the  roadway  is  too  wide  it 
usually  results  in  no  part  being  kept  in  good  repair,  while  if  it  was 
narrowed  the  whole  could  be  kept  in  first-class  condition  at  less 
expense,  and  a  well  kept  road  of  even  2o-feet  width  is  far  preferable 
to  a  road  but  half  maintained  of  double  the  width. 

In  laying  out  it  may  be  advisable  to  take  a  strip  considerably 
wider  than  the  intended  road-bed,  so  as  to  provide  for  possible 
contingencies  in  the  future  when  the  land  becomes  more  valuable. 
Lay  out  sufficiently  wide,  but  build  only  so  much  as  can  be  kept 
in  thorough  repair. 

These  general  rules  about  what  should  be  done  are  all  well 
enough  in  their  way,  but  it  will  be  found  much  more  satisfactory  in 
results  to  obtain  the  services  of  a  competent  engineer,  and  let  him 
enter  into  the  details  involved  in  each  particular  case  and  decide 
from  the  conditions  that  arise. 

The  judgment  and  skill  introduced  in  this  way  will  frequently 
save  costly  and  troublesome  mistakes,  and  leaves  nothing  to  chance 
or  ignorance.  (See  Appendix  i.) 

ROAD-BED. 

Requirements  of  a  Good  Road-bed. — The  essential  requirements 
of  a  good  road-bed  are,  that  it  shall  be  practically  unyielding — 
smooth  on  the  surface,  and  impervious  to  water  ;  and  without  these 
requirements  there  can  be  but  little  durability. 

General  Requisite  for  Road-beds. — Before  calling  attention  to 
particular  kinds  of  road-bed  there  are  certain  requisites  apply  to  all 
kinds. 

The  first  and  most  important  of  these  is  thorough  drainage. 

No  matter  what  the  material  may  be  a  proper  attention  given 
to  drainage  will  be  found  to  be  a  good  investment,  both  as  to  first 
cost  and  future  maintenance. 

Advantages  of  Drainage. — Some  of  the  advantages  of  thorough 
drainage  will  readily  present  themselves. 

In  this  climate  the  worst  enemies  to  building,  or  properly 
maintaining  a  road-bed,  are  water  and  frost,  and  if  the  first  is  kept 
out  the  second  will  have  little  or  no  effect,  as  the  surface  will  not  be 
effected,  and  heaving  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Again,  if  a 
road-bed  is  thoroughly  drained,  it  dries  much  more  promptly,  and 
has  less  mud  and  less  dust. 

The  construction  of  road-beds  may  be  properly  divided  into 
two  parts — viz.:  the  foundation  and  surface.  Under  the  head  of 
foundations  is  included  all  necessary  sub-drainage  works,  culverts, 
ditches,  etc. 


354  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

Earth  Roads. — For  earth  roads,  as  commonly  built,  there  is  but 
little  to  be  said,  and  they  should  only  be  tolerated  in  a  new  country  or 
where  there  is  absolutely  nothing  but  earth,  of  which  to  make  a  road. 

Yet  with  earth  alone  a  very  passable  road  can  be  made  and 
maintained,  if  sufficient  care  is  taken  to  have  it  thoroughly  drained, 
and  the  surface  of  proper  shape. 

The  persistent  care  with  which  some  of  the  so-called  Road- 
Surveyors,  in  the  country,  excavate  the  material  which  has  washed 
into  the  gutters  and  replace  it  upon  the  center  of  the  road,  seems  to 
indicate  a  belief  that  the  powers  of  man  surpass  and  are  superior  to 
those  of  nature. 

Cost  of  Handling  Earth,  etc. — Regarding  the  cost  of  handling 
earthwork  of  various  kinds,  many  elaborate  tables  have  been  com- 
piled of  the  cost,  the  distance  to  which  it  can  be  profitably  cast  with 
shovels,  how  far  it  can  economically  be  carried  in  barrows,  etc.,  all 
of  which  are  of  great  value  to  an  engineer  in  the  determination  of 
methods  of  conducting  work,  and  the  economy  of  management,  but 
to  the  average  individual  who  may  be  called  upon  to  make  or  super- 
vise the  making  of  a  road,  they  are  but  little  better  than  so  much 
Latin  or  Greek. 

Handling  Earth  with  Shovds^etc. — The  generally  accepted  rules 
in  handling  earth,  are:  first,  with  shovels  it  can  be  cast  horizontally 
from  5  to  10  feet,  and  vertically  it  can  be  lifted  or  thrown  from  5  to 
7  feet,  and  the  cost  of  moving  to  the  maximum  distance  either  hori- 
zontally or  vertically  will  be  found  to  be  nearly  the  same. 

Wheelbarrows. — Where  wheelbarrows  are  used,  it  will  be  found 
that  they  can  be  economically  used  up  to  a  distance  of  perhaps  2.00 
feet,  but  when  it  becomes  necessary  to  carry  to  a  greater  distance 
than  this,  it  will  be  better  to  use  carts.  Any  increase  in  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  barrow  road  will  have  the  effect  to  decrease  the  amount 
of  material  that  can  be  handled,  and  an  inclination  of  i  in  10  will 
reduce  the  load  that  can  be  wheeled  to  two-thirds  of  what  can  be 
handled  on  a  level  road. 

To  overcome  a  vertical  rise  of  3  feet,  will  cost  as  much  as 
wheeling  from  80  to  100  feet  horizontally. 

Hauling  with  Carts. — With  one-horse  carts,  it  is  estimated  that 
one  foot  vertical  costs  as  much  as  14  feet  horizontal. 

Time  Required  for  Dumping. — For  a  long  haul  it  will  be  found 
that  two-horse  carts  are  much  more  economical  than  single  carts  ; 
and  dumping  carts  in  every  way  preferable  to  the  much  used  pole- 
bottomed  carts  or  Studebaeker  wagons  employed  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York.  A  series  of  observations  were  made  by  the  writer  upon 
the  relative  time  required  to  dump  a  load  and  get  away,  with  the  two 
kinds  of  carts. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  355 

The  time  was  taken  when  the  team  was  stopped  on  the  dump, 
and  when  the  driver  started  to  drive  away  ;  and  it  was  found  that 
with  the  dump  cart  the  average  time  for  dumping  and  getting  away 
was  three-quarters  of  a  minute,  while  with  the  other  kind  it  averaged 
about  three  and  one-half  minutes. 

Shrinkage  of  Earth. — In  determining  the  amount  necessary  to 
make  a  specified  embankment,  the  shrinkage  of  the  material  used 
should  be  carefully  considered,  as  it  will  be  found  to  vary  from  8  to 
15  per  cent.,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  material,  gravel  and 
sand  shrinking  the  least  and  clay  the  most,  the  latter  sometimes 
reaching  25  per  cent. 

*Gillespie  gives  an  easy  approximate  rule  for  determining  the 
cost  of  moving,  with  single  carts,  one  cubic  yard  of  earth  any  dis- 
tance, on  a  level,  deduced  from  the  formulas  of  Ellwood  Morris, 
C.  E.  (See  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  Sept.,  1841.) 

Gillespie's  Rule  for  Cost  of  Moving  Earth. 

For     300  feet  -5-  wages  of  cart  and  driver  by 24 

500    "  "  *«  "  19 

"     1,000      "  "  "  "  12 

"    1,500     "  "  "  "  9 

*'   2,500     •'  "  "  "  6 

"    3,000    ••  "  "  .'*•..        5 

The  proportional  expense  of  carrying  long  distances  will  be 
found  to  be  less  than  short  distances,  as  less  time  is  lost  is  filling 
and  dumping. 

Drainage. — Drainage  for  a  road  should  be  of  two  kinds,  sur- 
face and  sub-drainage.  The  first  provides  for  the  speedy  removal 
of  surface  water  or  rain-fall  on  the  surface,  and  the  second  for  the 
removal  of  water  which  penetrates  beneath  the  surface,  and  into  the 
body  of  the  road  covering. 

Effect  of  Perfect  Sub-drainage. — As  a  result  of  perfect  sub- 
drainage,  there  is  little  or  no  effect  from  frost,  and  the  surface  and 
body  of  the  road  does  not  become  softened  and  destroyed  in  sum- 
mer. 

Surface  Drainage. — For  surface  drainage,  ditches  should  be 
provided  along  each  side  of  the  road  having  sufficient  fall  to 
promptly  carry  away  any  water  that  reaches  them.  Where  it 
becomes  necessary  to  carry  the  water  across  the  roadway  culverts 
should  be  provided. 

All  drains  should  have  a  continuous  fall  throughout  their  entire 
length,  and  the  size  will  depend  upon  the  inclination  and  the  amount 
of  water  they  are  expected  to  carry. 

*  Roads  and  Railroads,  p.  131. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

The  amount  of  rain-fall  over  the  area  to  be  provided  for  is  an 
important  element  in  deciding  upon  the  sizes  required.  For  Central 
Park  provision  was  made  for  a  rain-fall  of  two  inches  per  hour  over 
the  entire  surface,  but  this  is  largely  in  excess  of  the  usual  require- 
ments. 

ROAD    SURFACES. 

Kinds  of  Road  Surfaces. — These  may  be  divided  into  Gravel, 
McAdam,  Telford,  and  the  pavements  of  various  kinds,  such  as 
granite,  wood,  asphalt,  brick,  etc. 

Gravel  Roads. — In  portions  of  the  country  where  gravel  is  easily 
obtainable,  a  very  satisfactory  road  can  be  made  by  making  the  sur- 
face for  a  greater  or  less  depth  of  gravel. 

Manner  of  Construction. — Prepare  the  foundation  so  as  to  allow 
for  prompt  drainage,  and  shape  as  the  finished  road  is  intended  to 
be;  make  the  sides  of  the  road  planes,  and  not  curves,  and  then  roll 
thoroughly  to  get  a  solid  foundation. 

Put  on  a  layer  of  gravel  from  6  inches  to  8  inches  in  thickness, 
sprinkle  thoroughly  and  roll  till  very  compact  and  firm.  Next 
spread  another  layer  from  4  inches  to  6  inches  of  gravel,  and 
sprinkle  and  roll  till  the  desired  hardness  and  smoothness  are 
obtained. 

Use  Binding  Material  if  Necessary. — If  the  gravel  has  no  bind- 
ing material  in  it,  a  sufficient  amount  may  be  incorporated  in  the 
last  layer  to  cause  it  to  take  a  good  bond. 

Hard  Pan  and  Bank  Gravel. — Where  it  is  possible  to  get  blue 
gravel  or  hard  pan  and  clean  bank  gravel,  the  two  can  be  so  mixed 
as  to  give  a  surface  almost  like  concrete  in  hardness.  When  the  two 
are  used  together  a  two-horse  grooved  roller  for  the  first  layer  will 
be  found  very  effective,  and  the  material  should  be  quite  wet  while 
rolling.  The  surface  can  then  be  finished  with  a  steam  roller,  or 
with  a  smooth  roller,  sufficiently  loaded  to  give  the  requisite 
weight. 

Weight  of  Roller. — In  completing  the  surface  of  a  gravel,  or 
other  road,  where  rolling  is  required,  the  weight  of  the  roller  should 
be  as  much  per  inch  as  the  weight  per  inch  on  the  tire  of  the  heaviest 
vehicle  likely  to  pass  over  it.  For  ordinary  traffic  a  very  durable 
and  economical  surface  can  be  produced  in  this  way. 

GRAVEL    SURFACE    WITH    RUBBLE    FOUNDATION. 

Gravel  and  Rubble. — There  are  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  City 
-nany  very  good  examples  of  the  above  named  road — viz.:  in  Central 
Park,  also  Avenue  St.  Nicholas  from  One  Hundred  and  Tenth  Street 
northward,  and  others. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND   MAINTENANCE.  357 

Avenue  St.  Nicholas.— -The  method  of  constructing  this  latter 
road*  will  perhaps  furnish  as  good  an  illustration  as  can  be  readily 
found. 

On  the  prepared  road-bed,  which  was  made  of  the  same  shape 
as  the  finished  surface,  and  well  rolled,  was  placed  rubble  stone  not 
exceeding  9  inches  in  the  greatest  dimension,  and  most  of  them 
less.  These  stones  were  placed  as  uniform  as  possible  and  closely 
covered  the  surface.  On  top  of  this  was  placed  a  light  layer  of 
quarry  chips  which  was  than  rolled  with  a  6^-ton  roller  till  the 
spawls  were  well  compacted  and  wedged  into  the  interstices  of  the 
rubble  foundation.  On  this  was  spread  a  light  layer  of  gravelly 
earth  or  hard  pan,  moistened  by  sprinkling  carts,  and  then  rolled  to 
fill  all  spaces. 

The  gravel  was  applied  in  two  layers,  all  of  the  large  stone 
raked  out,  and  the  whole  kept  moistened  while  rolling.  Care  was 
taken  not  to  have  it  too  wet. 

The  first  layer  was  thoroughly  rolled  before  applying  the  second. 

Grant  on  Gravel  Roads. — Before  the  roller  was  put  on  the  top 
layer  a  light  coat  of  gravelly  loam  or  hard  pan  about  one-fifth  the 
bulk  of  the  gravel  was  thoroughly  mixed  in,  by  raking,  until  well 
incorporated  with  the  gravel.  A  thorough  rolling  completed  the 
process,  and  the  roller  could  be  used  occasionally  to  good  advantage 
after  the  road  was  open  to  travel.  W.  H.  Grant,  M.  A.  S.  C.  E., 
who  had  an  extensive  experience  in  building  gravel  and  McAdam 
roads,  says,  "  It  is  believed  that  gravel  roads,  constructed  with 
either  rubble  or  Telford  foundations,  are  better  suited  for  light  and 
pleasure  travel,  are  more  agreeable  for  carriages  and  horses,  less 
difficult  and  expensive  to  maintain,  require  less  attention  in  water- 
ing, and  raise  less  dust  than  roads  finished  with  McAdam  surface." 

Cross  Section  of  Roadway. — The  top  surface  of  all  roads  should 
have,  in  addition  to  the  gradient,  a  side  slope  from  the  center,  vary- 
ing according  to  the  hardness  of  the  surface. 

In  a  general  way,  whenever  it  is  practicable,  the  side  slope  of 
the  road  should  equal  or  exceed  the  longitudinal  gradient,  so  that 
the  water  passing  over  the  surface  may  take  a  course  to  reach  the 
gutter  not  sharper  than  45  degrees  with  the  center  line.  In  some  of 
the  smaller  German  States,  where  road-making  and  maintenance  has 
been  reduced  to  more  of  a  science  than  with  us,  they  allow  the  rise 
at  the  center  from  T1^  to  ^  of  the  width  of  the  road. 

Rise  of  Road-bed  in  Germany  and  Prussia. — In  Prussia  the  side 
slope  is  prescribed  and  bears  a  certain  relation  to  the  gradients  of 
the  roads,  varying  from  ^  in  roads  falling  more  than  4  in  100,  to  i 
in  12  for  roads  falling  less  than  2  in  100. 

*See  first  Report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Public  Works. 


3^8          ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE. 
MC  ADAM  SURFACE. 

McAdam,  from  whom  the  road  so  called  takes  its  name,  main- 
tained that  the  foundation  of  the  road  should  not  be  of  large  stone 
at  all,  nor  should  it  of  necessity  be  of  an  unyielding  nature,  and  he 
made  the  comparative  cost  of  maintaining  a  road  with  a  road-bed  of 
solid  rock  and  one  having  a  soft  soil  or  morass  for  foundation,  as 
7  to  5. 

Size  of  Stone  as  Fixedly  McAdam. — McAdam  maintained  stren- 
uously that  a  stone  over  one  inch  in  diameter  was  determined  in  a 
road,  as  it  had  a  tendency  to  tip  when  a  wheel  came  on  it,  and  thus 
moved  the  adjacent  material ;  he  afterward  substituted  weight  for 
size  and  made  6  ounces  the  maximum  stone  that  was  to  be  used. 
He  has  a  considerable  following  among  the  French  and  English 
engineers,  but  in  this  country  the  Telford  foundation  is  generally 
preferred. 

ParnelVs  Specifications. — The  specifications  for  Telford,  as  given 
by  Parnell's  Treatise,  London,  1833,  give  the  following  directions: 
Prepare  the  road-bed  of  the  required  shape,  and  on  this  set  stones 
by  hand,  to  form  a  close  pavement.  Set  the  stones  carefully  on 
their  broadest  edge,  lengthwise  across  the  road,  the  upper  faces  not 
to  be  more  than  four  inches  in  breadth.  Break  off  all  irregulari- 
ties with  a  hammer,  and  fill  all  interstices  with  stone  chips,  well 
rammed  in  between  the  larger  pieces,  to  make  a  compact  mass. 

On  this  place  a  layer  of  stone  as  nearly  cubical  in  form  as  prac- 
ticable and  about  2^2  inches  in  diameter  to  a  depth  of  4  inches,  and 
then  2  inches  more  to  be  added  as  a  second  layer,  and  finally  the 
whole  to  be  covered  with  i^  inches  of  gravel,  free  from  clay  or 
earth. 

Binding  Material  Detrimental. — Parnell  says  that  the  presence 
of  binding  material  on  a  new  road  is  a  positive  detriment,  as  it  pre- 
vents solidity  by  getting  between  the  stones.  The  custom  to-day  is 
much  as  he  prescribes,  excepting  some  improvements  or  modifica- 
tions. Neither  McAdam  nor  Telford  used  rollers. 

The  Use  of  Rollers. — The  use  of  rollers  in  road  making,  which 
is  now  considered  a  necessity,  was  brought  prominently  before  Eng- 
lish readers  by  a  paper  written  by  Sir  John  Burgoyne  in  1843.  He 
recommended  as  the  greatest  attainable  weight  261  pounds  per  inch 
of  roller.  (See  Appendix.) 

There  are  three  types  of  McAdam  road,  as  given  by  him — traf- 
fic made,  and  horse  and  steam-rolled. 

With  a  horse  roller  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  compact  hard 
stone  without  binding,  and  no  steam  roller  is  heavy  enough  to  com- 
pact trap  or  granite  without  binding. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  359 

Horse  vs.  Steam  Roller. — The  horse  roller  will  make  a  better 
road  than  can  be  made  by  traffic,  but  this  is  very  much  inferior  to  a 
steam  roller  with  the  maximum  weight  per  inch  of  roller. 

Where  the  surface  is  rolled  with  a  sufficiently  heavy  horse  roller 
it  is  cut  up  badly  by  horses'  feet,  and  then  the  admixture  of  manure 
and  dirt  prevents  a  thorough  bonding  and  compacting  of  the 
surface. 

The  steam  roller,  in  addition  to  being  heavier,  does  not  cut  up 
the  surface  and  allows  a  harder  binding  to  be  used,  and  the  action 
of  the  roll  has  a  tendency  to  arrange  the  stone  more  compactly  than 
would  be  done  by  weight  alone. 

Southern  Boulevard. — About  New  York  City  are  many  good 
examples  of  Telford  and  McAdam  pavement,  and  considering  the 
surface  rendered,  none  perhaps  more  worthy  of  mention  than  the 
Southern  Boulevard  constructed  by  W.  E.  Worthen,  M.  A.  S.  C.  E., 
commencing  at  Third  Avenue  and  running  easterly  and  northerly 
from  the  north  side  of  Harlem  River  through  the  annexed  district. 
Manner  of  Building. — In  constructing  it,  the  earth  was  first 
rolled  thoroughly,  and  then  two  layers  of  2|-inch  trap  rock,  the  first 
6  inches  in  thickness  and  the  last  4  inches  in  thickness,  placed  upon 
it ;  these  were  thoroughly  rolled  with  a  two-horse  roller,  and  then 
2\  inches  of  screening  were  spread  over  the  surface  and  well  rolled. 
The  screenings  were  applied  very  wet.  The  road  had  a  very 
steady,  and  much  of  it  heavy,  traffic,  yet  it  remained  in  very  good 
condition  for  quite  a  number  of  years  with  trifling  repairs. 

As  long  as  the  surface  of  a  roadway  of  this  kind  remains 
unbroken  it  stands  very  well ;  but,  as  is  the  case  at  present  with  the 
Southern  Boulevard,  it  has  been  partially  excavated  to  make  place 
for  a  railroad,  and  the  material  has  never  been  gotten  back  as  com- 
pactly as  before,  and  the  road  has  been  badly  used  up. 

Road  Built  by  E.  P.  North,  M.  A.  S.  C.  £".— A  road  built  by 
E.  P.  North,  M.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  was  composed  of  2-inch  stones  in  layers 
6  inches  in  thickness,  rolled  with  a  roller  6  feet  in  length,  weighing 
two  tons  when  unloaded  and  three  and  a  half  tons  with  a  load,  and 
drawn  by  four  or  six  horses. 

Special  attention  was  paid  to  get  the  stone  as  free  from  dirt, 
etc.,  as  possible,  and  for  this  purpose  it  was  handled  with  ten-tined 
forks,  which  allowed  most  of  the  finer  portion  to  drop  through, 
thus  leaving  the  stone  clean.  The  layers  were  thoroughly  rolled, 
and  then  the  dust  and  small  stones  were  spread  and  rolled  in,  and 
finally  about  f -inch  of  clayey  earth  was  spread  on  top  and  the  whole 
thoroughly  rolled,  the  roller  passing  144  times  over  the  surface.  The 
roller  used  weighed  from  75  to  100  pounds  per  inch  of  roll,  but  he 
considers  them  too  light  to  be  economical.  (See  Appendix,  2.) 


360  ROAD   CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

The  Glasgow  and  Carlisle  Road. — The  Glasgow  and  Carlisle 
Road  was  built  with  the  roadway  18  feet  in  width  and  a  crown  of  4 
inches  in  the  center. 

Metaling  was  put  on  the  road  in  two  layers.  The  bottom 
course  was  7  inches  in  depth,  placed  with  the  broad  end  down  and 
the  top  surface  not  over  3  inches  in  diameter ;  the  bottom  stones 
were  carefully  placed,  breaking  joints  as  far  as  possible,  then  the 
top  spaces  were  filled  with  smaller  stones,  packed  in  by  hand  and 
securely  wedged. 

The  top  layer  was  composed  of  stone  broken  to  pass  through  a 
2|-inch  ring,  spread  and  thoroughly  compacted,  and  then  covered 
with  one  inch  of  gravel.  There  was  a  drain  from  the  bottom  course 
every  hundred  yards.  The  drains  were  carried  clear  across  the  road 
and  into  water  courses  at  the  outside. 

After  this  road  was  completed  and  in  use  for  a  while,  it  was 
found  that  the  repairs  necessary  required  from  80  to  120  cubic  yards 
of  material  per  annum,  per  mile. 

Me  Adam  Center  on  Earth  Roads. — In  constructing  roadways 
having  a  portion  only  macadamized  it  will  be  found  of  great  benefit 
in  rolling  to  lap  the  roller  on  to  the  edge  of  the  earth  portion  and 
thus  compact  the  earth  so  as  to  give  a  suitable  shoulder  to  help  hold 
the  metaling,  then  continue  the  rolling  toward  the  center. 

Thickness  of  Roads. — The  thickness  necessa^  for  a  good  road- 
bed is  given  differently  by  different  authorities.  McAdam  advocated 
7  to  10  inches  and  considered  the  last  ample  for  any  service,  but  the 
custom  in  this  country  for  heavy  traffic  is  to  make  the  thickness  not 
less  than  12  inches,  though  some  roads  have  been  built  in  Bridge- 
port, Conn.,  which  have  been  made  considerably  less  in  thickness, 
and  so  far  have  reflected  great  credit  upon  the  engineer  in  charge, 
by  their  thorough  construction. 

Where  the  traffic  is  so  heavy  that  McAdam  or  Telford  are  not 
economical,  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  some  kind  of  pavement. 

The  more  common  kinds  are  granite  or  trap-block,  wood,  brick 
and  asphalt. 

GRANITE    OR    TRAP-BLOCK    PAVEMENT. 

These  blocks,  with  various  modifications  for  foundations,  con- 
stitute the  principal  pavement  in  this  country  for  exceedingly  heavy 
traffic,  and  are  durable,  fairly  smooth,  and  easily  laid. 

Size  of  Stones. — The  general  requirements  for  the  laying  of 
pavement  in  New  York  City  are — the  stones  may  vary  from  7  to  9 
inches  in  depth,  8  to  12  inches  in  length,  and  from  3^  to  4^  inches 
in  thickness,  and  nearly  rectangular  in  shape. 

The  road-bed  is  prepared  by  excavating  to  a  depth  sufficient  to 
give  a  good  sand  bed,  usually  from  3  to  5  inches  in  thickness. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  361 

The  sand  must  be  clean  and  sharp,  without  too  large  an  admix- 
ture of  large  stone,  that  is  one  inch  or  over. 

The  preparation  of  the  road-bed  must  be  made  without  plow- 
ing, and  it  is  thoroughly  rolled  if  required  with  a  steam  roller 
weighing  not  less  than  ten  tons. 

After  the  road-bed  is  prepared,  the  sand  is  placed  thereon,  and 
bond  stones  set  at  the  proper  places,  giving  a  crown  of  6  to  8  inches 
to  the  roadway,  according  to  the  width.  The  blocks  are  laid  at 
right  angles  to  the  street,  allowing  one  inch  joint.  The  whole 
surface  is  then  covered  with  sand  which  is  swept  into  the  joints  as 
the  work  progresses. 

Ramming. — The  rammers  follow  after,  and  with  pinch  bars 
adjust  the  stones  to  give  fair  and  even  joints,  and  then  ram 
thoroughly,  after  which  the  sand  is  again  strewn  over  the  surface, 
and  brushed  into  the  joints.  (See  Appendix.) 

Various  Foundations. — Different  foundations  are  sometimes 
used,  such  as  concrete,  etc.,  and  the  joints  run  full  of  cement  or 
mastic  of  some  kind  ;  the  latter  method  makes  a  surface  practically 
impervious  to  water,  and  wears  very  satisfactorily. 

Where  a  sufficiently  rigid  system  of  inspection,  over  opening 
the  streets  for  connections  with  water,  gas  or  steam  pipes,  and 
sewers  is  maintained,  this  block  pavement  stands  the  heaviest  traffic 
as  well  as  anything  in  use. 

WOODEN    PAVEMENT. 

Wooden  pavement  has  been  tried  quite  extensively  in  the 
different  cities  of  this  country,  but  so  far  have  not  proved  an 
unqualified  success. 

Advantages. — The  advantages  of  a  wooden  pavement  are  slight 
resistance  to  draught,  noiselessness,  easily  cleaned — they  cause  less 
wear  and  tear  on  vehicles — are  pleasant  to  ride  over,  and  the  first 
cost  is  less  than  stone  blocks. 

Objections. — The  objections  are  slipperiness  in  wet  weather,, 
non-durability,  both  from  wear  and  decay,  and  there  have  been 
found  serious  objections  to  them  on  sanitary  grounds.  Still  where 
the  foundations  are  properly  made  and  drained,  and  the  block 
treated  so  as  to  prevent  rapid  decay  by  any  of  the  various  processes, 
and  especially  where  stone  blocks  are  not  easily  available,  they  have 
proven  a  very  satisfactory  improvement  in  the  character  of  the 
roadway. 

Manner  of  Laying. — The  various  methods  of  laying  will  only 
be  outlined,  and  a  reference  to  the  requirements  for  laying  on  the 
Strand,  in  London,  will  perhaps  give  the  most  modern  and  satisfac- 
tory practice. 


362  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

Requirements  for  the  Strand  Pavement  in  London. — The  exca- 
vation for  the  roadway  is  carried  to  a  depth  of  15  inches  and  a 
layer  of  Portland  cement  concrete  9  inches  in  thickness  placed 
thereon  and  shaped  to  conform  to  the  finished  surface  of  the  road. 
Concrete  is  composed  of  seven  parts  of  stone,  etc.,  to  one  barrel  of 
cement.  The  top  is  floated  on  to  the  required  shape  and  then  the 
blocks  of  best  Baltic  redwood,  or  equally  good  timber,  creosoted 
and  placed  endwise  upon  the  concrete. 

The  joints  between  the  blocks  are  then  run  with  cement  grout 
or  hot  bituminous  mastic.  Cement  grout  is  composed  of  one  part 
cement  and  three  parts  sand.  The  top  of  the  pavement  is  then 
covered  with  a  layer  of  sand  or  gravel  and  opened  to  traffic.  (See 
Appendix.) 

BRICK    PAVEMENT. 

In  certain  portions  of  this  country  brick  has  been  used  as  a 
pavement  and  found  to  answer  the  requirements  fairly  well. 

Brick  Pavement  in  JDes  Moines,  Iowa. — In  Des  Moines,  Iowa, 
there  are  about  ten  miles  of  streets  paved  with  this  material,  and 
they  are  proving  quite  satisfactory. 

The  method  of  laying  is  to  surface  the  road  according  to  plan, 
then  to  roll  with  a  roller  weighing  150  pounds  to  the  inch,  or  ram 
with  rammers  weighing  81  pounds. 

In  embankment  the  layers  are  made  9  inches  in  thickness  and 
thoroughly  rolled  or  rammed.  On  the  foundation  as  prepared  is 
spread  a  layer  of  sand  3  inches  in  thickness,  and  on  this  the  bricks, 
which  are  specially  burned  for  the  purpose,  are  laid  flat,  breaking 
joints  in  the  laying.  The  joints  are  completely  filled  with  sand  and 
on  top  a  ^course  of  sand  i  inch  thick  is  spread. 

The  next  course  of  brick  is  laid  on  edge,  and  the  joints  thor- 
oughly filled  with  sand,  then  one  inch  of  sand  is  spread  over  the  top 
and  it  is  ready  for  traffic.  Brick  used  for  the  same  purpose  have 
been  used  in  West  Virginia  and  have  proven  satisfactory. 

ASPHALT    PAVEMENT. 

Until  quite  recently  asphalt  has  been  used  but  little  as  a  pave- 
ment for  roadways  in  this  country,  and  the  climatic  conditions  are 
so  different  from  France  and  England  that  at  present  it  is  a  little 
problematical  just  how  far,  and  under  what  conditions,  it  will  prove 
successful  when  used  alone. 

Many  of  the  pavements  laid  with  it  in  Paris  and  London  have 
proven  very  satisfactory,  and  some  work  has  been  done  with  the 
pavement  in  this  country,  but  with  the  extremes  of  temperature 
from  10  degrees  to  no  degrees  in  this  climate,  it  will  give  the  pave- 
ment a  very  severe  trial,  unlike  anything  it  is  called  upon  to  undergo 
in  either  England  or  France. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  363 

Some  of  the  pavement  already  laid  in  this  country  has  seemed 
to  prove  fairly  satisfactory,  as  in  Boston  and  in  Washington,  but  in 
many  cases,  under  a  severe  traffic,  it  has  been  found  wanting. 

When  used  in  combination  with  other  material  it  has  proven  a 
very  valuable  adjunct,  but  with  the  limited  information  available  and 
the  comparatively  short  time  it  has  been  in  use,  the  writer  is  not 
prepared  to  give  an  unqualified  indorsement  to  its  use  in  this 
country,  or  at  least  in  this  portion  of  it. 

Constant  Attention  Required  to  Keep  Surface  in  Good  Condition. — 
Having  obtained  a  smooth,  properly  compacted  surface  on  a  road,  it 
should  always  thereafter  be  maintained  in  first-class  condition  ;  but 
it  will  be  found  that  this  can  only  be  done  by  constant  vigilance  and 
attention. 

Repairing  roads  is  not  unlike  a  fire  just  starting — a  very  little 
properly  directed  effort  will  stop  it;  and  with  great  force  it  applies  to 
a  road  when  the  surface  begins  to  get  in  bad  condition. 

In  speaking  of  repairing  roads  we  shall  confine  our  attention  to 
roads  having  an  earth,  gravel  or  macadam  surface,  as  repairs  on 
pavements  need  no  description  here. 

On  earth  or  gravel  roads  a  veiy  effective  and  economical  instru- 
ment to  help  keep  the  surface  in  condition,  is  what  is  described  by 
E.  P.  North,  M.  A.  S.  C.  E.  (see  Trans.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  May,  1879),  as 
a  hone. 

The  Hone  or  Scraper. — This  is  made  of  various  shapes  and 
sizes,  but  in  a  general  way  consists  of  a  timber,  or  heavy  plank, 
faced  on  one  side  with  a  steel  plate  to  prevent  rapid  wear,  and  pro- 
vided with  handles  on  the  back  to  guide  it,  when  being  drawn  along 
the  road  surface.  It  is  attached  to  the  team  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
draw  at  an  angle  with  the  line  of  the  road,  and  is  very  effective  in 
filling  ruts,  and  removing  small  stones  from  the  surface  of  the  road- 
way. 

This  is  best  used  while  the  road  is  somewhat  softened  by  rain. 

To  Keep  a  Road  in  Good  Condition. — To  keep  a  road  in  good 
condition  there  should  be  no  ruts ;  and  to  prevent  ruts,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  prevent  any  accumulation  of  mud  or  dust. 

If  ruts  are  formed  water  collects,  and  the  adjoining  material 
becomes  softened  and  more  easily  cut  up  and  the  drainage  much 
increased. 

Secret  of  Successful  Road  Repairs. — Here  we  have  the  secret  of 
successful  road  repairs — viz.:  continual  repairs.  Keep  the  dust 
swept  from  the  road,  the  ruts  filled  up  with  suitable  material,  and 
the  surface  of  the  road  will  keep  in  good  order. 

If  repairs  are  not  continually  made  there  can  be  no  constant 
good  road. 


364  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

Sprinkle  During  Dry  Weather. — When  a  long  continued  dry 
spell  occurs  it  will  be  found  economical  as  well  as  effective,  in  pre- 
venting excessive  wear  on  a  road,  to  sprinkle  frequently. 

Tresaquet,  a  French  engineer,  was  the  first  to  call  attention  to 
the  continuous  system  of  repairs,  and  it  was  adopted  in  Baden  in 
1845,  and  it  has  extended  over  nearly  all  European  countries. 

Amount  of  Material  and  Cost  in  Baden,  1845-1860. — In  tables 
giving  the  amount  of  material  used  in  making  repairs  previous  to 
1845,  and  subsequent  to  that  time,  it  was  shown  that  in  1832,  218.6 
cubic  yards  of  material  were  used  per  mile  for  repairs,  white  from 
1855  to  1860  there  was  only  about  90  cubic  yards  per  mile  required, 
and  the  cost  of  maintenance  was  reduced  during  the  same  period 
about  40  per  cent. 

Statements  of  French  Engineers. — The  statements  of  Gen.  John 
F.  Burgoyne,  taken  from  the  reports  of  French  engineers,  show 
equally  good  results  from  the  continuous  method  of  repairing,  giv- 
ing better  roads  at  a  reduction  in  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  from 
12  to  40  per  cent.  At  the  time  these  statements  were  made  French 
engineers  calculated  that  by  maintaining  the  roads  in  the  best 
possible  condition,  the  cost  of  draught  of  merchandise  over  the 
roads  in  France  might  be  reduced  one-third,  or  about  $30,000,000 
saved  to  the  public  in  one  year. 

Repairing  on  the  Continuous  System. — The  method  of  repairing 
roads  on  the  continuous  system  can  be  briefly  outlined  as  follows: 

Have  the  material  for  road  covering  deposited  at  convenient 
intervals  along  the' side  of  the  road,  from  200  to  300  feet  apart. 
Have  a  man  detailed  to  look  after  the  repairs  of  the  road  for  every 
two  or  three  miles,  and  let  his  sole  duty  be  to  keep  his  section  in 
repair.  The  tools  necessary  for  him  to  have  will  be  a  broom,  hoe, 
shovel,  rammer,  wheelbarrow  and  water  pot. 

Duties. — He  should  keep  all  dust  swept  from  the  road  in  dry 
weather,  remove  all  mud  in  wet  weather,  see  that  the  surface  drain- 
age is  maintained,  and  if  there  is  any  standing  water  on  the  road 
sweep  it  off  and  fill  up  the  depressions.  The  covering  which  wears 
off  should  be  replaced  gradually,  and  the  best  time  to  replace 
metaling  is  during  wet  weather.  Where  there  are  ruts  they  should 
be  thoroughly  swept  out  to  free  from  dust  or  mud,  and  then  fill  up 
with  the  prepared  material. 

Repairing. — If  large  breaks  take  place  they  should  be  brought 
up  gradually,  especial  care  being,  taken  not  to  produce  surfaces 
which  will  be  avoided  by  the  vehicles  passing  over,  and  proper 
attention  should  be  given  to  make  the  new  work  bind  to  the  old  as 
promptly  and  completely  as  possible.  The  quantity  of  macadam 
necessary  to  keep  a  road  in  proper  condition  varies  according  to 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  365 

the  traffic  and  the  quality  of  the  material  used,  but  the  following 
table  gives  perhaps  as  fair  <in  estimate  as  any. 

Amount  of  Material  Needed  for  Repairs. — The  table  is  calcu- 
lated for  a  roadway  20  feet  wide  and  ico  feet  in  length,  and  gives 
the  amount  necessary  to  keep  in  repair  for  one  year : 

(1)  Good  material  and  heavy  travel,  5.5  to  7.5  cubic  yards. 

(2)  Medium  material  and  heavy  travel,  7.5  to  9.2  cubic  yards. 

(3)  Poor  material  and  heavy  travel,  9.2  to  10.2  cubic  yards. 

(4)  Good  material  and  average  travel,  3.7  to  5.5  cubic  yards. 

(5)  Medium  material  and  average  travel,  5.5  to  7.5  cubic  yards. 

(6)  Poor  material  and  average  travel,  7.5  to  9.2  cubic  yards. 

(7)  Good  material  and  light  travel,  1.8  to  3.7  cubic  yards. 

(8)  Medium  material  and  light  travel,  3.7  to  5.5  cubic  yards. 

(9)  Poor  material  and  light  travel,  5.5  to  7.6  cubic  yards. 

Where  it  is  not  convenient  to  divide  the  care  of  the  road  in 
short  sections,  it  will  be  found  that  a  road  roller,  in  connection  with 
the  maintenance,  will  be  both  profitable  and  satisfactory. 

Use  Roller  After  Frost  Comes  Out  of  Ground. — In  the  spring, 
after  the  frost  is  well  out  of  the  ground,  the  whole  surface  of  the 
roadway  should  be  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller,  preferably  with  a  steam 
roller  of  maximum  weight. 

Use  of  Roller  Considered  Profitable. — In  the  opinion  of  the 
writer,  there  is  nothing  that  gives  more  satisfactory  returns  for  the 
amount  invested,  either  in  making  or  maintaining  a  road,  than  the 
free  application  of  a  heavy  roller  to  the  surface. 

Uniform  System  of  Construction  and  Maintenance  Desirable. — 
For  the  most  efficient  and  economical  maintenance  of  the  public 
roads,  it  would  seem  to  be  essential  that  a  uniform  system  of  con- 
struction and  maintenance  be  carried  out  through  the  whole  State  or 
country.  Create  a  State  or  National  department  to  have  general 
charge  of  all  public  roads  and  bridges. 

Executive  Officers  and  Division  of  the^  Work. — The  head  of  the 
department  should  be  a  man  of  large  experience,  good  executive 
ability,  and  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  art  of  road  building. 
His  duties  should  be  to  arrange  and  direct  the  carrying  out  of  all 
details  relative  to  the  construction  and  repairs. 

For  convenience,  the  State  should  be  divided  into  districts  and 
sub-districts,  with  a  competent  civil  engineer  in  charge  of  each  dis- 
trict, and  assistants  in  charge  of  each  sub-district,  who,  in  their 
turn,  have  control  of  a  certain  gang  or  working  force,  and  who  must 
supervise  the  details  of  all  construction  and  repairs  for  their 
respective  districts. 

Expensive  Machinery  Made  Available. — Under  a  general  system, 
stone  crushers,  steam  rollers,  and  other  expensive  machinery  might 
be  employed  such  as  towns  would  not  be  able  to  command. 


366  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

Suitable  material  could  in  this  way  be  prepared  wherever  found 
without  regard  to  town  lines. 

Two  Methods  of  Doing  the  Work. — Either  of  two  methods  could 
be  adopted  for  doing  the  work:  by  men  stationed  singly,  as  pre- 
viously mentioned,  or  by  gangs  working  together,  assigned  to 
districts  of  such  extent  as  they  can  thoroughly  keep  in  repair. 

Advantages  of  the  System. — By  substituting  this  or  some  similar 
method  of  managing  the  repairs  on  the  roads,  in  place  of  the  present 
unsatisfactory  and  expensive  custom,  we  should  undoubtedly  be 
able,  in  a  short  time,  to  produce  a  permanent  and  noticeable  im- 
provement in  the  character  of  our  roads,  with  the  most  economical 
expenditure  of  time  and  money. 

It  would  also  establish  a  system  of  individual  accountability 
which  would  be  a  great  help  to  keep  up  the  morale  of  the  force 
employed,  for  each  one  would  be  directly  responsible  to  some  one 
in  authority  over  him,  and  any  dereliction  in  duty  could  be  easily 
detected  and  punished. 

With  the  presentation  of  the  foregoing  we  will  leave  the  subject 
of  maintenance  of  roads,  firmly  believing  that  if  there  could  once  be 
a  system  in  successful  operation,  to  produce  good  roads,  it  would 
matter  but  little  after  that  what  cost  was  involved  in  making  of  the 
roads,  or  what  skill  was  necessary  to  maintain  them,  a  grateful  public 
would  gladly  pay  the  necessary  taxes  to  do  both. 

From  this  we  will  proceed  to  suggest  some  of  the  advantages  of 
good  roads. 

ADVANTAGES    OF    GOOD    ROADS. 

Let  us  look  at  some  of  the  advantages  to  a  community  resulting 
from  good  roads. 

Economic  Considerations. — First  let  us  look  at  it  from  an  eco- 
nomic standpoint,  as  that  is  the  position  which  strikes  most  people 
promptly  and  forcibly. 

It  has  been  determined  by  careful  experiments  that  two  or  three 
times  as  great  a  load  can  be  drawn  on  a  broken-stone  road  as  on 
gravel,  and  four  or  five  times  as  much  on  a  good  pavement  of  rect- 
angular stones. 

Experiments  of  MacNeil. — Very  many  experiments  have  been 
made  to  determine  the  actual  force  required  to  draw  a  given  load 
over  different  surfaces  or  pavements,  and  Sir  John  MacNeil,  in  his 
experiments,  determined  that  the  traction  for  a  load  of  one  ton  for 
different  surfaces  was  as  follows  : 

1.  On  good  pavement  the  force  necessary  to  move  the  load  was 
33  pounds. 

2.  Broken  stone  on  old  flint  road,  65  pounds. 

3.  Gravel  road,  147  pounds. 


ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE.          367 

4.  Broken  stone  on  rough  pavement*  bottom,  46  pounds. 

5.  Broken  stone  on  bottom  of  beton,  46  pounds. 

Many  experiments  have  been  made  on  the  force  required,  mostly 
by  English  and  French  engineers,  and  the  experiments  have  left  but 
little  to  be  desired. 

The  most  concise  and  complete  compilation  of  these  different 
results,  with  which  the  writer  is  acquainted,  is  that  made  by  Rudolph 
Hering,  M.  A.  S.  C.  E.,  and  read  before  the  Engineers'  Club  in 
Philadelphia,  in  March,  1882,  and  recently  printed  in  The  Engineer- 
ing and  Building  Record.  (See  Appendix.) 

Roads  beine  the  only  means  of  communication  with  railroads 
and  markets,  it  follows  that  if  a  heavier  load  can  be  drawn,  and 
better  time  made  on  a  good  road  than  on  a  poor  one,  that  the  area 
benefited  by  railroads  and  made  tributary  to  markets  is  increased, 
in  direct  proportion  to  the  goodness  of  common  roads. 

Good  Roads  Shorten  Distances  and  Save  Wear  and  Tear,  etc. — 
It  will  readily  appear  that  a  farm  four  or  five  miles  from  market,  on 
a  good  road,  is  virtually  nearer  to  the  market  than  one  located  but 
two  or  three  miles  away,  but  located  on  a  poor  road.  It  is  estimated 
that  a  saving  of  as  much  as  25  per  cent,  in  animal  power  alone  can 
be  saved  by  the  improvement  of  the  roadway,  besides  the  saving  in 
time,  and  the  wear  and  tear  on  vehicles. 

An  eminent  writer  says  :  "  The  road  is  that  physical  sign  or 
symbol  by  which  you  will  best  understand  any  age  or  people.  If  they 
have  no  roads  they  are  savages,  for  the  road  is  the  creation  of  man 
and  the  type  of  civilized  society." 

The  Best  Roads. — The  best  roads  in  the  world  to-day  are  those 
of  England,  France  and  Germany,  and  their  excellence  is  largely  due 
to  the  fact  that  in  each  country  they  came  under  national  supervision, 
and  the  resulting  highways,  the  finest  in  existence,  are  the  cheapest 
to  maintain,  and  in  every  way  the  most  satisfactory  to  those  who  use 
them. 

American  Roads. — "  The  American  roads  are  far  below  the  aver- 
age; they  are  among  the  worst  in  the  civilized  world  and  always  have 
been,  largely  as  a  result  of  allowing  local  circumstances  to  determine 
the  location.  No  general  system  of  building  or  maintaining,  and 
haste,  waste  and  ignorance  in  building."  To  summarize  the  advan- 
tages of  good  roads  : 

They  attract  population,  increase  the  value  of  property,  decrease 
the  cost  of  transportation,  and  thus  encourage  the  greater  exchange 
of  products  between  one  section  and  another;  and  being  feeders  for 
the  railroads,  they  directly  bring  distant  places  more  nearly 
together,  and  promote  intercourse  and  the  development  of  commer- 
cial life. 


368  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

The  writer  has  been  compelled  in  looking  for  the  results  of 
elaborate  experiments  to  gather  them  from  foreign  sources — that  is, 
he  has  not  been  able  to  find  any  records  of  any  extensive  or  continu- 
ous investigations  upon  traction,  friction  and  kindred  subjects  made 
in  this  country. 

He  has  availed  himself  liberally  of  the  investigations  and 
writings  of  such  men  as  Gillespie,  Gillmore,  Herschel,  North,  Owens 
and  others. 

APPENDIX. 

(1)  Two  forcible  examples  of  the  improvement  that  can  be  made, 
by  careful   engineering  skill,  in  the  chance  location  of   roads  are 
given  in  Gillespie's  Roads  and  Railroads.     (See  pages  36  and  233.) 

An  old  road  in  Anglesea,  laid  out  in  violation  of  this  rule  (to 
have  no  counter  grades),  rose  and  fell  between  its  extremities,  24 
miles  apart,  a  total  perpendicular  amount  of  3,540  feet;  while  a  new 
road  laid  out  by  Telford  between  the  same  points,  rose  and  fell  only 
2»257  feet;  so  that  1,283  ^ee^  °f  perpendicular  height  is  now  done 
away  with,  which  every  horse  passing  over  the  road  had  previously 
been  obliged  to  ascend  and  descend  with  its  load.  The  new  road  is 
besides  more  than  two  miles  shorter. 

(2)  A    more  modern  exemplification  of  the  true  principles  of 
road   making  are   furnished  in  the  construction  of  a   plank  road 
between  Chittenango  and  Cazenovia,  N.  Y.,  under  the  supervision  of 
Mr.  Geddes. 

Both  villages  are  situated  on  Chittenango  Creek,  the  latter 
being  800  feet  higher  than  the  former. 

The  most  level  common  road  between  these  villages  rises  more 
than  1,200  feet  in  going  from  Chittenango  to  Cazenovia,  and  rises 
400  feet  in  going  from  Cazenovia  to  Chittenango,  in  spite  of  the 
latter  place  being  800  feet  lower. 

The  line  of  the  plank  road,  however,  by  following  the  creek, 
ascends  only  the  necessary  800  feet  in  one  direction  and  has  no 
ascents  in  the  other,  with  two  or  three  trifling  exceptions,  allowed  in 
order  to  save  expense. 

Rollers. — It  is  perhaps  superfluous  to  give  any  description  of 
the  different  kinds  of  rollers  in  use,  but  being  desirous  of  calling 
attention  to  one  mentioned  by  C.  Herschel  in  Report  of  Massa- 
chusetts State  Board  of  Agriculture,  1869-1870,  I  will  briefly 
suggest  rather  than  describe  them. 

The  roller  described  and  also  delineated,  is  hollow,  of  cast 
iron,  and  so  constructed  as  to  be  filled  with  water  when  additional 
weight  is  required,  which  can  be  emptied  when  going  from  place  to 
place. 


ROAD   CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  369 

A  circular  cast-iron  frame  surrounds  the  roll  and  carries  the 
axle  bearings.  The  outside  of  this  frame  is  turned  to  form  a  groove, 
in  which  a  strong  wrought-iron  band  is  fitted  in  a  manner  to  turn 
easily.  The  wrought-iron  band  is  made  in  two  parts,  and  when  put 
together  incloses  the  pole  on  one  side  of  the  roll  and  the  balance 
weight  on  the  other  side  on  an  extension  bar.  This  ring  is  arranged 
so  as  to  turn  on  the  frame,  when  it  is  desired  to  go  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Allowing  the  ring  to  turn  instead  of  turning  the  roll 
saves  much  wear  and  tear  on  certain  parts  of  the  road.  A  roller  of 
this  kind,  4^  diameter  and  3j  feet  long,  weighing  4  tons  empty, 
would  cost  §56o-§6oo,  and  a  larger  size  from  §700-5750.  It 
originated  in  Chemnitz,  Germany. 

The  ordinary,  smooth  cast-iron  roller  for  use  on  the  farm  is  of 
but  little  use  on  the  road  on  account  of  its  lightness. 

The  grooved  iron  roller,  formed  of  two  sets  of  rolls,  one  about 
8  inches  less  in  diameter  than  the  other,  is  a  very  effective  imple- 
ment in  constructing  banks,  or  rolling  the  lower  layer  for  a  gravel 
road,  but  is  unsuitable  for  use  on  the  surface. 

The  steam  roller  is  the  most  thorough  and  satisfactory  machine, 
and  is  much  to  be  preferred  over  any  other  kinds.  They  are  made 
of  various  weights,  some  of  those  in  France  weighing  as  much  as 
440  pounds  to  the  inch  of  roll.  They  cost  from  §4,000  to  §7,000, 
and  cost  about  §10  per  day  to  run  them. 

Appended  find  the  general  form  of  specifications  used  in  New 
York  City  for  block  pavement. 

EXCAVATION  FOR  FOUNDATION. 

Excavation. — (a)  The  roadway  shall  be  carefully  excavated  where 
necessary  and  brought  to  the  required  pavement  sub-grade,  and  all  super- 
fluous and  extraneous  matter  removed. 

Rock  and  Masonry  Taken  out  Below  Sub-grade. — (£)  Any  rock  or 
masonry  which  is  above  the  pavement  sub-grade  shall  be  removed  to  a 
depth  of  one  foot  below  the  same. 

Sub-grade. — (c)  Pavement  sub-grade  shall  be  uniformly  one  foot  and 
one-tenth  below  the  intended  pavement  surface.  The  foundation  shall 
nowhere  rise  above  said  sub-grade.  If  it  should  fall  below,  owing  to 
shrinkage  or  on  account  of  removal  of  rock  or  masonry,  or  other  cause,  no 
new  filling  shall  be  added  other,  than  sand  of  the  same  quality  as  that  used 
for  bedding  the  paving  stones. 

No  Plowing  Allowed.— (d)  In  the  excavation  below  grade  and 
preparation  of  foundation  no  plowing  will  be  allowed. 

Preparation  of  Foundation. — (e)  The  foundation  shall  be  carefully 
brought  to  an  even  surface,  conforming  to  the  required  sub-grade,  and 
should  there  be  any  spongy  material  or  vegetable  matter  in  the  bed  thus 
prepared,  it  shall  be  removed  and  the  space  filled  with  clean  sand  carefully 
rammed  so  as  to  make  such  filling  compact  and  solid,  and  when  required  by 
the  engineer,  the  entire  road-bed,  after  having  been  brought  to  the  required 


37°  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

sub-grade,  shall  be  rolled  with  a  steam  roller  weighing  not  less  than  ten 
tons,  until  the  surface  is  firm  and  compact,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
engineer. 

When  the  steam  roller  cannot  reach  every  part  of  the  road-bed,  the 
bottom  at  those  portions  shall  be  tamped  or  rolled  with  a  small  roller  and 
sprinkled  with  water  if  required  ;  and  should  the  material  of  the  bottom 
not  admit  of  satisfactory  rolling,  such  material  must  be  removed  and 
proper  material  substituted  by  the  contractor  at  his  own  expense. 

Price  for  Paving  to  Cover  Excavation,  etc. — (/)  The  cost  of  all 
excavation  of  whatever  character  required  in  executing  the  work  shall  be 
included  in  the  price  paid  for  the  pavement. 

BLOCK    PAVEMENT. 

Quality  and  Dimensions  of  Stone  Block. — (a)  The  stone  blocks  are 
to  be  of  a  durable,  sound  and  uniform  quality  of  trap-block,  each  measur- 
ing on  the  face  or  upper  surface  not  less  than  8  inches  nor  more  than  i  loot 
in  length,  and  not  less  than  3  inches  nor  more  than  4  inches  in  width,  and 
not  less  than  7  inches  nor  more  than  9  inches  in  depth  ;  to  be  split  and 
dressed  so  as  to  form,  when  laid,  close  end  joints,  and  side  joints  not 
exceeding  i  inch  wide  top  and  bottom,  with  fair  and  true  surfaces  on  top, 
bottom  and  ends  ;  and  are  in  all  respects  to  be  equal  to  the  specimen  blocks 
deposited  at  the  office  of  the  engineer,  as  hereafter  provided. 

Sample  Blocks. — (&)  Before  any  paving  blocks  are  placed  upon  any 
part  of  the  work,  the  engineer  shall  approve  of  the  quality  and  finish  of 
samples  of  the  same,  which  shall  be  furnished  at  his  office  by  the  contractor. 

When  Stone  Blocks  May  be  Hauled  on  Line  of  Work.—(c}  After 
any  portion  or  portions  of  the  street  or  avenue,  not  less,  each,  than  the  dis- 
tance between  two  intersecting  streets,  shall  have  been  brought  to  the 
required  grade  and  the  curb-stones  set  and  crosswalks  laid,  and  not  until 
then  (unless  permission  in  writing  is  given  by  the  engineer),  the  contractor 
shall  haul  upon  the  line  of  the  work  at  each  of  said  points  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  stone  blocks  to  pave  such  portions. 

To  be  Carefully  Culled. — (d]  The  stones  will  be  carefully  inspected 
after  they  are  brought  on  the  line  of  the  work,  and  all  blocks  which,  in 
quality  and  dimensions,  do  not  conform  strictly  to  these  specifications,  will 
be  rejected,  and  must  be  immediately  removed  from  the  line  of  the  work. 
The  contractor  will  be  required  to  furnish  such  laborers  as  may  be  necessary 
to  aid  the  inspector  or  inspectors  in  the  examination  and  culling  of  the 
blocks  ;  and  in  case  the  contractor  shall  neglect  or  refuse  so  to  do,  such 
laborers  as  in  the  opinion  of  the  Commissioners  of  the  Department  of  Public 
Parks  as  may  be  necessary  will  be  employed  by  said  Commissioners,  and 
the  expense  incurred  by  them  will  be  deducted  and  paid  out  of  any  money 
then  due  or  which  may  thereafter  grow  due  to  the  said  contractor  under 
this  agreement. 

Rejected  Materials  to  be  Forthwith  Removed. — (e)  After  inspection, 
as  provided  above,  all  rejected  stones  shall  be  immediately  removed  by  the 
contractor  from  the  line  of  the  work.  The  contractor  will  then  be  required 
to  pile  such  stones  as  may  have  been  approved,  neatly  on  the  front  of  the 
sidewalk,  and  not  within  three  feet  of  any  fire-hydrant,  and  in  such  manner 
as  will  preserve  sufficient  passage-way  on  the  line  of  the  sidewalks,  and 
also  permit  of  free  access  from  the  roadway  to  each  house  on  the  line  of  the 
street.  After  this  inspection  has  been  made,  and  after  all  the  rejected 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  371 

stones  shall  have  been  removed  entirely  from  the  line  of  the  work,  and 
the  accepted  stones  piled  in  fhe  manner  aforesaid,  and  not  until  each  of 
these  conditions  shall  have  been  faithfully  fulfilled  will  the  contractor 
be  permitted  to  proceed  with  the  preparation  of  the  road-bed  for  the  new 
Pavement. 

(/")  It  being  expressly  understood  that  the  work  is  to  be  prosecuted  in 
sections  of  not  less  than  the  space  between  any  two  intersecting  streets, 
and  when  the  blocks  are  over  300  feet  in  length,  then  in  sections  not  less 
than  150  feet  nor  more  than  300  feet,  and  that  these  provisions  relative  to 
the  hauling,  inspection  and  removal  and  piling  of  stones  shall  apply  to  the 
work  on  each  of  said  sections  on  the  whole  line  of  work. 

Over  Rail  Ties  and  Other  Places. — (g)  Between,  in  and  one  foot 
outside  of  railroad  tracks,  over  vaults,  around  sewer,  man-holes,  frames, 
and  in  such  other  places  as  the  engineer  may  deem  proper,  the  contractor 
shall  use  for  the  pavement  stone  blocks  of  such  lesser  dimensions  as  the 
said  engineer  shall  direct,  but  the  same  general  dimensions  on  the  top  sur- 
face shall  be  maintained. 

Laying  the  Pavements,  etc. — (h)  The  stone  blocks  are  to  be  laid  at 
right  angles  with  the  line  of  the  avenue,  except  at  intersecting  streets  and 
in  other  special  cases,  when  they  shall  be  laid  at  such  angles  as  directed, 
with  such  crown  and  at  such  grade  as  the  engineer  may  direct;  each  course 
of  blocks  shall  be  of  uniform  width  and  depth,  and  so  laid  that  all  longi- 
tudinal joints  shall  be  Broken  by  a  lap  of  at  least  two  inches,  and  that  all 
such  joints  shall  be  as  close  as  possible. 

Ramming. — As  the  blocks  are  laid  they  shall  be  covered  with  clean, 
fine  sand,  which  shall  be  raked  until  all  the  joints  become  filled  therewith  ; 
the  blocks  shall  then  be  thoroughly  rammed  to  a  firm,  unyielding  bed,  with 
a  uniform  surface,  to  conform  to  the  grade  and  crown  of  the  street.  No 
ramming  shall  be  done  within  25  feet  of  the  face  of  the  work  that  is  being 
laid,  and  in  doing  all  ramming  the  contractor  shall  employ  one  rammer  to 
every  two  pavers. 

Covering  Sand. — Whenever  the  pavement  for  not  less  than  200  feet, 
and  not  exceeding  260  feet,  shall  have  been  constructed  as  above  described, 
it  shall  be  covered  with  a  good  and  sufficient  second  coat  of  clean,  sharp 
sand,  and  shall  immediately  thereafter  be  thoroughly  rammed  until  the 
work  is  made  solid  and  secure,  and  so  on  until  the  whole  of  the  work  em- 
braced in  this  agreement  shall  have  been  well  and  faithfully  completed,  in 
accordance  with  these  specifications. 

Wooden  Pavement  on  The  Strand,  London,  England. — For  com- 
plete specifications  from  which  the  abstract  in  the  body  of  the  article 
was  taken,  see  Engineering  and  Building  Record  for  December  9, 1889. 

Resistance  to  Traction  on  Roads. — Resistance  to  traction  is  very 
nearly  proportional  to  the  weight. 

It  increases  on  paved  roads  with  the  velocity,  owing  to  the 
increase  of  concussions,  but  it  remains  nearly  constant  on  roads 
with  a  compressible  surface,  as  earth,  sand  or  turf  (Rumford  & 
Morin).  The  smoother  the  pavement  and  the  less  rigid  the  car- 
riage— /.  e.y  the  better  it  is  hung,  the  less  does  the  velocity  affect  the 
resistance. 


372  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

Whenever  the  velocity  is  not  above  a  pace,  springs  do  not 
affect  the  resistance  ;  'when  it  is  greater,  the  resistance  decreases  as 
the  carriage  is  better  hung.  On  soft  roads  springs  may  slightly 
increase  the  resistance  at  low  speeds.  The  destruction  of  the  road  and 
carriage  is  greater  when  the  latter  is  without  than  with  springs  (Morin). 

The  advantages  of  a  paved  over  a  macadam  road,  in  point  of 
traction  are  considerable  for  heavy  loads,  less  for  stages,  and  nearly 
nothing  for  light  carriages  (Debaune). 

According  to  Morin,  the  resistance  to  traction  increases  slightly 
with  the  number  of  wheels,  but  is  inversely  proportional  to  their 
diameter.  According  to  Dupuit  it  is  inversely  as  the  square  root, 
according  to  Clark,  as  the  cube  root  of  the  diameter.  The  destruc- 
tion of  the  road  and  the  carriage  is  always  greater  as  the  diameter 
of  the  wheel  is  less  (Morin). 

On  a  paved  or  hard  macadam  road  the  resistance  is  independent 
of  the  width  of  the  tire,  when  this  quantity  exceeds  about  4  inches 
(Dupuit  and  Morin).  When  it  is  between  2  and  4  inches  for  heavy 
loads  and  low  speeds,  the  broader  tire  will  give  proportionately  less 
resistance.  For  light  loads  the  width  has  no  influence  on  the 
resistance.  On  earth  and  other  compressible  roads  the  resistance 
increases  inversely  as  the  width  of  the  tire  (Rumford  and  Morin). 
In  Europe  a  common  rule  is  to  make  the  width  of  a  tire  one-half  an 
inch  for  every  125-175  pounds  upon  the  wheel,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  roads.  The  least  width  is  usually  about  2  inches. 

From  the  above  we  may  gather  that  the  most  economical  con- 
ditions for  traction  are : 

1.  A  hard  and  smooth  surface,  both  when  speed  is  to  be  at- 
tained and  where  heavy  loads  are  to  be  hauled,  and 

2.  Large  wheels,  especially  for  heavy  loads. 

3.  For  light  loads  the  width  of  tire  is  immaterial,  and  is  there- 
fore better  as  narrow  as  the  character  of  the  road  will  permit.     For 
heavy  loads  the  resistance  increases  inversely  as  the  width  of  tire. 
While  on  hard  reads  this  effect  is  less,  it  is  very  decided  on  soft 
roads.     The  width  should  not  exceed  4  inches  at  least  on  hard  roads, 
and  it  is  rarely  less  than  2  inches,  except  for  light  pleasure  carriages. 

4.  Easy  springs  not  only  act  preservingly  on   roads  and  car- 
riages, but  materially  decrease  the'resistance  of  traction  at  trotting 
or  running  speeds. 

The  following  table  presents  the  results  of  experiments  on  the 
resistance  of  vehicles  to  traction  or  different  classes  of  roads  The 
fractions  which  are  generally  rounded  off,  indicate  the  part  of  the 
whole  weight,  which  is  equivalent  to  the  resistance  of  drawing  it  on 
a  level  road.  An  examination  of  this  table  will  clearly  show  the 
great  economy  in  horse-power  by  using  the  hardest  and  smoothest 


ROAD   CONSTRUCTION    AND   MAINTENANCE. 


373 


roads.  For  instance,  if  i  horse  can  just  draw  a  load  on  a  level  road 
on  iron  rails,  it  will  take  if  horses  to  draw  it  on  asphalt,  3^  on  the 
best  Belgian  block  pavement,  5  on  the  ordinary  Belgian  pavement, 
7  on  good  cobble-stones,  13  on  bad  cobble-stones,  20  on  an  ordinary 
earth  road,  and  40  on  a  sandy  road. 


'  Character  of  Road. 

Resistance 
in  Terms  of 
Load. 

Velocity. 

Authority. 

Sand  

| 

Pace 

Bevan 

Sandy   Road 

I 

3',  12'  per  sec 

Morin 

Loose  Gravel          

T 

Pace 

Bevan 

Gravel  4  inches  thick  

A 

Pace 

Morin 

Common  Gravel  Road     

3 

Pace 

MacNeil 

Gravel  Road            .       

A 

3'   per  second 

Rum  ford 

Gravel  Road  

2Sr 

12'  per  second 

Rum  ford 

Hard  Rolled  Gravel 

i 

Pace 

j  Bevan 

Wet  Turf  

| 

Pace 

/  Minard 
Morin 

Hard  and  Dry  Turf  

X 

Pace 

Morin 

Hard  and  Dry  Turf    ... 

2 

Bevan 

Ordinary  Earth  Road  

S 

Pace 

Bevan 

Hard   Clay 

9 

Bevan 

Hard  and  Drv  Earth  Road  

*-* 

Pace 

Morin 

Ordinary  Cobble-stone  

Trot 

Ordinary  Cobble-stone  

i 

Pace 

Good  Cobble-stone  (3>£-inch)  
Good  Cobble-stone  (3^-inch)  

s 

}C 

Trot 
Pace 

Kossack 
Kossack 

Good  Carriage  with  Springs  
Macadam  little  used  

-SO 

A 

Pace 

Kossack 
Morin 

fifed  Macadam       ... 

A- 

Pace 

Gordon 

Old  Macadam  .... 

o1* 

Navier 

Ordinary  Macadam  

1 

Trot 

(  MacNeil 

Ordinary  Macadam 

2 

Pace 

•j  Perdon't 

Good  Macadam  (wet  and  slightly 
muddy)  

i  -  *V 

(  Kossack 
Morin 

Best  French  Macadam 

«*« 

Navier 

Very  hard  and  smooth  Macadam 

* 

MacNeil 

Best  Macadam  

JL 

Tiot 

Rumford 

Best  Macadam 

2 

Pace 

Rum  ford 

Best  Macadam 

A-\V 

Gordon 

Best  Macadam  

S-X 

Morin 

Ordinary  Stone  Block  

fcV 

(  Perdon't 
•j  Poncelet 

Ordinary  Belgian   Block  

JU 

Pace 

(  Minard 
MacNeil 

Good  Stone  Block  

2 

Trot 

Rumford 

Good  Stone  Block  

X 

Pace 

Rumford 

Belgian  Block,  Boulevard,  Paris.. 

A™.V 

Navier 

Good  Belgian  Block    

i 

Trot 

Rumford 

Good  Belgian  Block  

S 

Pace 

Rumford 

Good  London  Block 

65 

Gordon 

Well  laid  Belgian  Block  

X 

MacNeil 

Good  Belgian  Block  

A-A 

Morin 

Planked  Roadway  (bridge)  

X-S 

Morin 

Asphalt   

Gordon 

Granite  Tramway  

TF 

Gordon 

Iron  Tramway  

T«S 

Gordon 

Sleighs  on  snow,  3  inches  thick, 
%  -inch  runners,  temperature  26° 

A 

374  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

ROAD   CONSTRUCTION* 

BY    I.   F.   POPE   ("  BONA   VIA,  BONUM   OPUS  "),  AUSTIN,  TEXAS. 

General  Remarks. — The  construction  of  country  roads  may  be 
divided  into  three  parts,  i.  The  alignment.  2.  The  earthwork,  or 
formation  of  the  road-bed.  3.  The  metaling,  or  formation  of  the 
hard  road  surface. 

Width  of  Road. — Before,  however,  any  of  these  can  be  under- 
taken, the  width  of  the  proposed  road  must  be  determined.  Any 
excess  width  beyond  the  requirements  of  traffic  is  a  waste  of  money. 
As  two  vehicles  can  conveniently  pass  one  another  in  a  width  of  18 
feet,  the  metaled  or  hard  central  surface  should  be  made  that 
breadth.  Provision  must  also  be  made  for  foot  passengers,  and  for 
a  softer  footing  for  horses  during  dry  weather  than  the  hard  central 
surface.  An  earthen  surface  eight  feet  in  width  on  each  side  of  the 
central  metal  surface  will  answer  both  these  purposes.  The  use  of 
this  less  expensively  constructed  surface  during  dry  weather  will  also 
be  economical,  as  it  will  save  the  wear  of  the  more  costly  metaled 
surface.  For  all  these  reasons  combined,  the  width  of  a  country 
road  should  be  as  follows  : 

A  central  macadamized  or  metaled  width  of  18  feet,  with  earthen 
sides  8  feet  broad  on  each  side;  or  a  total  width  for  traffic  of  34  feet, 
raised,  for  drainage  purposes  (except  where  in  cutting)  not  less  than 
six  inches  above  the  level  of  the  area  it  passes  over.  There  should 
also  be  an  earthen  berm  8  feet  broad  on  each  side  of  the  raised  road 
for  trees  and  for  stacking  the  metal  required  for  repairing  the  road. 
The  total  width  of  land,  therefore,  that  should  be  reserved  for  road 
purposes,  including  the  tree  berms  and  side  trenches,  should  not  as 
a  rule  be  under  66  feet,  or  4  rods.  Where  high  embankments  are 
necessary,  a  greater  width  may  be  required.  The  following  notes 
on  road  making  will  refer  to  a  road  of  the  width  or  dimensions  just 
described. 

THE    ALIGNMENT. 

Alignment  of  Road. — Having  determined  the  points  or  places  to 
be  connected  by  a  road,  the  country  along  the  proposed  line  should 
be  reconnoitered,  and  the  general  route  of  the  road  located  by  one 
or  more  reconnoissances.  Great  discernment  is  requisite  in  this 
preliminary  alignment,  so  as  to  combine  shortness  of  route  with 
the  avoidance  of  swamps  that  would  entail  an  unreasonable  cost  in 
securing  a  good  road-bed,  and  hills  that  might  entail  either  steep 
gradients  or  heavy  cost  in  deep  cuttings.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  in  many  cases  it  is  of  no  greater  length  to  go  round  a  hill  than 

*  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record  Competition. — Second  Prize 
Essay. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  375 

to  go  over  it,  thus  securing  both  greater  economy  of  construction 
and  easier  gradients. 

Location  of  Ri>ad. — The  preliminary  route  being  thus  determined, 
it  must  now  be  surveyed  with  transit  and  level,  and  the  final  align- 
ment located  along  the  selected  line.  It  is  of  course  expected  that 
the  person  who  undertakes  the  construction  of  a  road  has  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  use  of  the  transit  and  level,  and  the  laying  out  of 
lines  and  curves  and  gradients. 

Steepness  of  Gradients. — In  laying  out  a  road  the  gradients  or 
longitudinal  slope  of  the  road  should  not  be  permitted,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  to  exceed  3  feet  vertical  to  100  feet  hori- 
zontal. Under  exceptional  circumstances  5  feet  in  100  feet  may  be 
tolerated.  A  gradient  steeper  than  3  per  cent,  is  an  evil  that  should 
be  avoided  if  it  possibly  can.  In  hilly  country  a  gradient  as  steep 
as  5  per  cent,  is  a'c  times  necessary,  but  endeavors  should  be  made 
by  judicious  alignment  to  make  the  gradients  as  easy  as  possible. 
The  powers  of  traction  of  a  horse  are  much  strained  by  gradients 
above  3  per  cent.  It  would  be  far  preferable,  in  many  instances,  to 
incur  extra  expenditure  in  keeping  the  gradient  within  this  limit 
than  to  make  the  rate  of  ascent  steeper,  as  the  cost  once  incurred 
is  incurred  for  all  time  ;  whereas,  a  steep  gradient  is  for  ever  a  tax 
on  the  power  of  the  draught  animals,  on  the  harness,  and  on  the 
vehicles,  and,  in  a  short  time,  the  loss  due  to  this  tax  will  greatly 
overbalance  the  saving  effected  by  the  steeper  gradient.  A  young 
engineer  may  pride  himself  on  the  straightness  of  his  road,  but  if 
this  straightness  is  obtained  at  the  expense  of  easy  gradients,  that 
might  have  been  attained  by  slight  deflections  and  curves  here  and 
there,  his  straightness  and  pride  will  prove  very  expensive  to  the 
traveling  community  that  uses  his  road.  Let  it  then  be  remembered 
that  directness  of  route  and  easy  gradients  must  both  control  the 
alignment  of  the  road,  and  that  anything  above  3  per  cent,  may  be 
called  steep  ;  though,  as  I  have  said,  in  hilly  country  it  may  be 
necessary  to  go  as  high  as  5  per  cent,  gradients 

On  Road  Gradients. — If  the  natural  surface  of  the  country 
through  which  the  road  passes  has  a  natural  rise  or  fall  of  less  than 
\Y<2  feet  per  cent,  the  longitudinal  run  of  the  road  surface  may  be 
kept  parallel  to  this  natural  surface  ;  though,  at  the  same  time,  6 
inches  above  it.  But  if  the  natural  surface  of  the  country  rises  now 
and  again  above  the  grade  of  i%  per  cent,  moderate  cuttings  and 
fillings  up  to  3  feet  in  depth  or  height  may  be  resorted  to  if  such 
will  keep  the  gradients  within  the  limit  of  i*A  per  cent.;  more 
especially  if  the  cuttings  will  balance  the  fillings  without  an  un- 
reasonable length  of  haulage.  At  3  per  cent,  grades  the  line  of 
toleration  should  be  drawn,  and  unless  serious  obstacles  present 


37$  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

themselves,  such  as  would  give  an  undue  height  of  cutting  or  em- 
bankment, endeavors  should  be  made,  by  judicious  cuts  and  fills, 
not  to  exceed  a  3  per  cent,  grade. 

Gradients  in  Hilly  Country. — In  a  hilly  country,  by  going  around 
a  hill  instead  of  over  it,  an  easy  gradient  may  at  times  be  obtained 
without  unduly  increasing  the  length  of  the  road,  or  it  may  be  ad- 
visable to  ascend  the  hill  by  a  zigzag  route,  as  represented  by  the 
capital  letter  S.  But  in  whatever  way  it  may  be  most  advantageously 
done,  the  limit  of  gradient  should  should  not  exceed  5  per  cent. 
Easy  gradients  permit  the  full  utilization  of  the  traction  powers  of  a 
horse,  steep  gradients  detract  from  it.  A  gradient  as  high  as  3  per 
cent,  may  be  tolerated,  when,  as  I  have  said,  undue  depth  of  cut  or 
height  of  embankment  will  result ;  but  gradients  of  5  per  cent, 
should  only  be  permitted  where  great  extra  cost  or  great  extra  length 
of  road  would  result  by  adopting  a  lower  gradient. 

THE    EARTHWORK    OR    FORMATION    OF    THE    ROAD-BED. 

Formation  of  Road-Bed. — The  road  being  now  aligned  and  its 
gradients  fixed,  the  earthen  surface  or  road-bed  has  now  to  be  con- 
structed. The  width  of  this  to  be,  as  already  stated,  34  feet. 

Usefulness  of  Side  Ditches. — Where  the  surface  of  the  country 
has  natural  easy  gradients,  the  road-bed  should  be  raised  six  inches 
above  it  (as  shown  in  the  diagram),  to  keep  the  road  dry.  This 
raising  of  the  road  also  effects  the  double  object  of  forming  a  drain- 
age ditch  on  each  side  to  carry  off  the  rain-fall  to  the  nearest  culvert 
or  bridge.  These  ditches,  from  which  the  earth  is  excavated  to  form 
the  raised  road-bed,  give  an  increased  artificial  height  to  the  road  to 
aid  its  subsoil  drainage,  and  to  prevent  any  tendency  of  its  becoming 
sodden  during  a  long  continuance  of  wet  weather. 

Description  of  General  Cross  Section  of  Road  in  Embankment. — 
The  cross  section  then  of  the  earthen  surface  of  the  road,  where  it 
needs  no  action  to  improve  on  the  natural  easy  gradient  of  the 
country,  will  be  as  follows  : 

Vertical  scale  of  2  feet,  and  horizontal  scale  of  12  feet  to  an  inch. 


v/epe  of  6  "Vertical  fromdfoB  i»  ' 
7V»«  Jlopt  of  rood  surface  irf/f  MUJ  if  aloiif 
one  r'trfA  in    J  ft. 

CROSS  SecTiON  OF  ROAD 

To  obtain  the  earth  for  raising  the  road-bed  as  above,  the  side 
ditches  will  have  to  be  dug  7  feet  broad  at  top,  i  foot  at  bottom,  and 
2  feet  deep,  with  side  slopes  of  ij^  feet  horizontal  to  i  foot  vertical. 
This  size  trench  will  take  up  the  balance  of  the  66  feet  reserved  for 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  377 

road  purposes.  The  side  trenches,  which  appear  rather  deep,  will 
soon  silt  up  somewhat.  In  no  case  is  the  earth  for  raising  the  road 
to  be  taken  from  the  8  feet  berm  reserved  for  trees,  as  this  will  make 
these  berms  lower  than  the  surrounding  country.  All  the  earth 
required  for  the  road  must  be  taken  outside  the  8  feet  berm. 

Road  in  Marshy  Land. — In  low,  marshy  land,  the  height  of  the 
road-bed  should  not  be  under  i^  feet  above  the  water  line. 

Side  Slopes  of  Embankments,  How  Graded. — Where  embank- 
ments are  necessary,  the  side  slopes  of  these  embankments,  if  in 
ordinary  soil,  must  be  in  the  proportion  of  i>£  feet  horizontal  to  i 
foot  vertical,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  Thus,  an  embankment  3 
feet  high,  would  have  its  toe  4^  feet  beyond  the  vertical  line  of  the 
edge  of  the  34  feet  road  surface.  If  6  feet  high,  the  toe  would  be 
9  feet  beyond  ;  and  so  on  ;  always  adding  half  the  height  to  the 
total  height  to  find  the  spread  of  the  toe  of  the  embankment.  In 
constructing  embankments,  all  large  clods  of  earth  should  be  broken 
up,  as  otherwise,  where  these  accumulate,  depressions  or  hollows 
will  form  in  the  road  surface  when  the  embankment  settles. 

Extra  Allowance  for  Settlement  to  be  Made  in  Constructing  High 
Embankments. — An  extra  allowance  of  from  one  to  two  inches 
(according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil)  per  foot  of  height  of  embank- 
ment must  be  made  while  under  construction,  so  that  when  settle- 
ment occurs  the  embankment  will  have  the  full  height  originally 
intended,  metal  6  inches  thick. 


Of    FOUK    FEET    EMBANKMENT 


Road  in  Cutting.  —  Where  the  road,  to  obtain  a  proper  gradient, 
is  in  cutting  or  excavated,  the  section  of  it  will  be  as  follows  :  The 
slope  of  the  sides  of  the  cutting  to  be  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  from  i^  feet  horizontal  to  i  foot  vertical  in  ordinary  soil,  to 
almost  perpendicular  when  in  rock.  The  side  gutters  to  be  3  feet 
broad  at  top,  and  i  to  i  \  feet  deep,  with  side  slopes  of  i  \  horizontal 
to  i  vertical.  If  the  cutting  be  of  short  length  or  in  rock  the  gut- 
ters may  be  proportionately  reduced  in  size. 


Road  Along   Face  of  Hill. — Where  the  road  is  in  sloping  or 
sidelong  ground,  as  when  it  runs  along  the  face  or  side  of  a  hill,  the 


378  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

most  economical  form  of  construction  is  to  have  the  cuts  and  fills  of 
the  cross-section  to  balance  one  another.  To  effect  this  more  of  the 
width  of  the  road  will  be  in  cutting  than  in  embankment,  owing  both 
to  the  gutter  and  to  the  contents  of  the  embankment  portion  being 
of  greater  area  than  that  of  the  cutting.  The  drainage  slope  of  the 
road  surface  to  be  made  towards  the  hill  side  and  the  water  thus  not 
permitted  to  run  over  the  edge  of  the  embanked  portion.  The 
fall  or  slope  of  the  road  surface  from  the  edge  of  the  embankment 
to  the  gutter  on  the  inner  or  hill  side  will  be  i  foot.  The  gutter  to 
be  3  feet  wide  at  top  and  i  foot  deep,  with  side  slopes  of  i|  to  i. 


CROSS  SC.CTIOM  Of  ROAD  o/v  T»r  F*ct  or*M/tj~OAj»iSioc  (.0*6- 


Catch-water  Drain. — In  addition  to  the  gutter  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  road  another  gutter  or  catch-water  drain  should  be  made  on 
the  upper  side  of  the  hill  above  the  road  and  at  least  six  feet  from 
the  edge  of  the  cutting,  to  receive  and  carry  off  the  drainage  of  the 
face  of  the  hill  above  the  road.  These  catch-water  drains  should  be 
continued  to  the  culverts  that  should  be  constructed  wherever  there 
is  a  necessity  for  cross-drainage,  to  relieve  both  the  road  gutter  and 
catch-water  drain  from  an  accumulation  of  water. 

DRAINAGE. 

Drainage  of  Road. — The  manner  of  draining  the  66  feet  or 
greater  area,  reserved  for  road  purposes,  should  be  under  advise- 
ment at  the  same  time  as  the  grading  of  the  road  is  under  consider- 
ation. In  fact,  the  forming  of  the  road  embankment  may  be  said 
to  be  the  same  as  forming  the  trenches  for  draining  the  area  re- 
served for  the  road.  The  proper  drainage  of  the  area  within  the 
road  reservation  is  most  important  for  securing  a  good  road  ;  as  all 
water  permitted  to  lodge  within  this  area  will  tend  to  sodden  the 
road  and  render  it  incapable,  unless  by  extra  labor  and  expenditure, 
of  bearing  a  heavily  laden  wagon.  Trenches  of  sufficient  depth 
and  capacity  should,  therefore,  be  formed  to  carry  off  all  water 
from  the  road  reservation  to  the  nearest  culvert  or  bridge.  Those 
latter  should  be  provided  at  all  points  where  the  cross  drainage  of 
the  country  impinges  on  the  line  of  road.  It  is  in  the  long  run 
cheaper  to  build  a  culvert  to  carry  off  this  water  than  incur  the 
expenditure  that  will  be  necessary  to  keep  the  road  in  good  order, 
where  water  is  allowed  to  lie  and  soak  into  the  road  by  capillary 
attraction.  I  have  noticed  the  defective  want  of  small  culverts  even 
on  otherwise  well  constructed  railroads,  causing  the  labor  of  fre- 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  379 

quently  lifting  the  rails  to  bring  the  iron-way  to  a  proper  level ;  this 
sinking  being  due  to  the  softness  of  the  earthen  road-bed  from  the 
lodgment  of  water.  The  capacities  of  all  culverts  and  bridges 
should  be  mathematically  calculated  to  carry  off  all  the  water  that 
impinges  on  the  line  of  road.  As  instructions  on  the  calculation  of 
water-ways,  and  the  designing  of  bridges  and  culverts,  are  outside 
the  scope  of  this  article,  information  on  these  should  be  obtained 
from  treatises  on  these  subjects.  Any  ordinary  engineer  by  the  use 
of  a  leveling  instrument  can  give  levels  for  the  flow  of  water  along 
a  given  line.  The  defective  drainage  of  a  road  can  consequently 
be  only  due  to  the  want  of  knowledge  of  the  value  of  efficient  drain- 
age to  the  well-being  of  a  road. 

THK   METALING    OR    FORMATION    OF    A    HARD    ROAD    SURFACE. 

The  Metaled  Surface  to  be  18  Feet  Wide. — As  has  been  already 
stated  an  1 8-foot  width  of  metaling  will  suffice  for  the  requirements 
of  traffic  on  a  country  road.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  large 
city,  that  is.  for  a  mile  or  two  out,  accommodation  may  be  necessary 
for  the  simultaneous  passage  of  three  vehicles.  In  such  case  the 
metaled  surface  should  be  made  25  feet  broad  and  the  earthen  sides 
each  10  feet. 

The  Tel  ford  System  of  Providing  a  Hard  Road-bed. — There  are 
two  systems  in  use  in  the  formation  of  a  hard  surface  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  heavy  traffic  on  country  roads — viz.:  the  Telford 
and  the  Macadam.  The  former  consists  of  a  rough  pavement  of 
more  or  less  large  flat  rocks,  varying  in  thickness  from  6  to  12 
inches,  as  a  foundation  to  receive  an  uper  coat  of  broken  stone, 
6  inches  to  12  inches  in  thickness,  which  forms  the  road  surface. 

The  Macadam  System. — The  Macadam  system  dispenses  alto- 
gether with  the  foundation  or  rough  pavement  base,  and  places  the 
broken  stone,  varying  from  6  to  9  inches  in  thickness,  immediately 
on  the  prepared  earthen  surface  of  the  road.  The  Telford  system 
may  therefore  be  said  to  be  the  Macadam  system  with  a  foundation 
or  hard  base  added.  My  own  experience  in  India,  in  the  Public 
Works  Department  of  the  Government,  for  whom  I  constructed  over 
400  miles  of  country  road,  and  superintended  the  repair  and  main- 
tenance at  various  times  of  over  1,500  miles  of  roads,  is  entirely  in 
favor  of  the  Macadam  system,  without  the  addition  of  a  base. 
Where  the  method  of  constructing  the  earthen  road-bed,  as  described 
by  me,  is  properly  carried  out,  the  addition  of  a  rock  base  under  the 
macadamizing"  material  is  a  useless  waste  of  money.  Where  the 
road-bed  is  below  the  level  of  the  country,  and  imperfectly  drained, 
the  Telford  system  may  be  necessary;  but  with  the  efficient 
drainage  advocated  by  me,  and  the  manner  of  laying  the  metal  or 


380  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

macadamizing  matter,  carried  out  in  the  manner  to  be  described 
hereafter,  no  base  is  necessary.  It  is  more  economical  to  expend  a 
few  hundred  dollars  per  mile  in  securing  efficient  drainage  in  the 
original  construction  of  a  road  than  as  many  thousands  in  a  rock 
base.  I  see  that  the  Macadam  system,  in  opposition  to  the  double 
or  Telford  system,  has  also  been  introduced  into  America  with  good 
result  by  Mr.  Pierce,  of  Bridgeport,  Conn. 

I  am  somewhat  of  the  opinion  of  those  who  maintain  that  the 
broken  stone  or  road  surface  material  is  more  crushed  and  worn 
when  between  the  hard,  unyielding  rock  base  below,  and  the  heavy 
hammering  weight  of  a  horse  and  heavily  laden  wagon  above,  than 
where  it  rests  on  a  more  elastic  earthen  base,  which  is  yet  hard 
enough,  by  previous  rolling  with  a  15-ton  roller,  to  bear  the  weight 
of  the  traffic  borne  over  it. 

The  material  to  be  used  to  form  the  macadamized  or  metaled 
surface  of  the  road  will  depend  on  what  is  locally  obtainable  suitable 
for  such  purpose.  In  some  localities  it  is  trap  rock,  in  others  lime- 
stone, etc.  Again,  on  the  prairie  lands  of  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and 
parts  of  other  States,  there  are  no  large  masses  of  rock.  In  these 
gravel  can  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  stone.  I  have  used  broken 
stone,  Kunker,  a  formation  of  limestone  found  in  large  quantities  in 
India,  gravel,  and  even  coarse  sand  when  nothing  better  was  pro- 
curable at  a  reasonable  cost.  I  will  describe,  seriatim,  the  best 
method,  as  it  appears  to  me,  for  consolidating  all  these  (Kunker 
excepted,  which  is  not  found  in  America),  so  as  to  form  a  hard 
surface  suitable  for  traffic. 

The  Proper  Thickness  of  Metaling. — It  becomes  now  necessary 
to  determine  the  thickness  of  metaling  requisite  to  form  the  ma- 
cadamized road  surface.  Various  thicknesses  have  been  used  and 
have  their  advocates,  of  from  4  to  12  inches.  The  latter  is,  in  my 
experience,  excessive,  and  the  former  deficient.  A  4-inch  coat 
requiries  constant  supervision  and  expenditure  in  repairs  to  keep 
heavy  traffic  from  breaking  through  so  thin  a  crust  when  in  any 
way  worn.  More  frequent  renewals  are  also  necessary,  causing 
both  inconvenience  to  traffic  and  extra  expenditure  in  supervision, 
labor,  and  rolling  to  lay  a  fresh  coat  of  material.  From  my  experi- 
ence, I  would  say,  a  golden  mean  between  excess  and  deficiency  is 
arrived  at  by  making  the  thickness  7  inches  when  spread,  reduced 
by  consolidation  to  a  little  over  6  inches. 

Broken  Stone — Its  Quality  and  Size. — The  hardest  stone  or  rock 
locally  procurable,  or  obtainable  elsewhere  at  a  reasonable  cost,  to 
be  selected  to  form  the  macadamized  or  metaled  surface  of  the 
road.  This  to  be  broken  so  that  the  pieces  will  pass  through  a  ring 
if  inches  in  diameter.  This  is  the  easiest  and  most  practical  way  of 
testing  the  size  of  the  pieces. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  381 

Slope  of  Cross  Section  of  Metaled  Surface,  How  Formed. — 
There  are  two  methods  in  vogue  in  giving  the  requisite  slope  to  the 
cross  section  of  the  metaled  surface  of  the  road  to  pass  off  the  rain- 
fall. In  the  one,  the  earthen  surface  is  made  level  and  the  slope  is 
given  by  a  greater  thickness  of  metaling  at  the  center  than  at  the 
sides.  In  the  other  the  slope  or  camber  is  given  to  the  earthen  sur- 
face, and  the  metal  put  on  of  one  uniform  thickness. 


Of  METAL  /J  G-KCATCK  AT  -rue.  CCMTER  TM/>M  #r  rue 


>tt  9' 
-Sec  r/  on  OF  McrsiLLeD  ROAD  WHEKC.  rue  METAL  u  OF 


The  Metal  to  be  of  Uniform  Thickness.  —  The  advocates  of  the 
first  mentioned  system  say  there  is  more  wear  at  the  center  than  at 
the  sides,  and  consequently  the  metaling  should  be  thicker  at  the 
former.  Those  in  favor  of  the  uniform  thickness  say  that  as  an 
equal  pressure  should  be  sustained  by  the  earthen  base  under  all 
the  wheels,  so  the  resistance  (indicated  by  the  thickness  of  metal) 
should  also  be  equal,  and,  that  the  extra  wear  at  the  center  on  a 
country  road  is  inappreciable  ;  the  weight  thrown  by  the  inclined 
plane  of  the  road  on  the  lower  side  wheels  compensating,  in  great 
measure,  for  the  slight  extra  traffic  at  the  center.  My  experience  is 
in  favor  of  a  uniform  thickness  of  metal  ;  especially  as  it  prolongs 
the  time  to  a  general  renewal  of  the  metaled  surface,  which  has  to 
be  done  sooner  in  the  ununiform  system,  as  the  sides  are  soon 
worn  too  thin  for  traffic,  and  it  is  difficult  to  bring  them  to  the 
proper  thickness  without  a  general  renewal  of  the  whole  cross  sec- 
tional surface.  The  cross  slope,  or  camber  of  the  road,  should 
therefore  be  given  to  the  earthen  base,  and  the  metal  spread  on  it  of 
a  uniform  thickness. 

Preparing  the  Earthen  Surface  to  Receive  the  Metal.  —  While 
the  broken  stone  metaling  for  the  road  is  being  prepared,  the  earthen 
surface  or  base  should  also  be  prepared  to  receive  it.  If  possible, 
the  earthwork  of  the  road,  where  in  high  embankment,  should  be 
exposed  for  a  few  months  to  the  action  of  the  rain-fall,  which  will 
tend  to  settle  and  consolidate  it.  Immediately  before  receiving  the 
metaling,  all  hollows  and  depressions,  etc.,  of  the  earthen  road-bed, 
due  to  settlement  or  the  action  of  the  rain,  should  be  filled  up,  and 
the  earthen  surface  given  the  requisite  camber  or  cross  slope  from 
the  center  to  the  sides,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  whole  sur- 


382  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

face  should  then  be  rolled  with  a  15 -ton  steam  road  roller  (all 
unevenness  and  derangement  of  shape  due  to  the  action  of  the  roller 
being  promptly  made  good),  until  the  roller  ceases  to  have  any 
impression  on  it.  If  the  surface  be  of  sand,  or  of  such  nature  as  to 
move  or  heap  up  before  the  roller,  a  thin  layer  of  broken  stone  or 
gravel  should  be  strewn  on  it. 

Stone  Bench  Marks. — The  earthen  surface  being  now  thor- 
oughly rolled,  and  formed  to  the  proper  curved  camber,  stone  bench 
marks  8*x8"x4ff  should  be  sunk  at  5o-feet  intervals  along  the  edges 
and  center  of  the  proposed  line  of  metaling,  and  set  in  position  by 
a  leveling  instrument  to  indicate  both  the  height  of  the  earthen  sur- 
face and  the  base  of  the  metaling,  and  for  giving  the  proper  camber 
to  the  road. 

Gauging  Height  of  Metaling. — Temporary  wooden  gauges  7 
inches  high  to  be  placed  over  these  bench  marks,  to  show  the 
height  to  which  the  metaling  must  be  raised  as  it  is  placed  on  the 
road.  The  bench  marks  being  placed  exactly  50  feet  apart  can 
easily  be  found;  and  they  will  thereafter  serve  to  indicate  the  depth 
of  wear  of  the  metaled  surface.  The  cost  of  these  bench  marks  will 
be  small,  as  their  sides  need  not  be  cut  to  any  regular  shape;  a  flat 
upper  surface  to  receive  the  bottom  of  the  leveling  rod  being  all 
that  is  needed. 

The  Earthen  Sides  to  be  Dressed  off  to  the  Level  of  the  Spread 
Metal. — As  soon  as  the  metal  is  spread  to  the  proper  height,  and 
before  the  consolidation  of  it  is  commenced,  the  earthen  sides  of 
the  road  are  to  be  brought  up  to  the  proper  level  all  along  the 
edges  of  the  metaling  and  given  the  prescribed  slope  to  shed  off 
the  rain. 

Rolling. — The  metal  being  now  evenly  spread  (with  the  proper 
sectional  camber)  over  a  convenient  length  of  road,  and  the  earthen 
sides  raised  along  its  edges,  the  whole  surface  is  to  be  rolled  with  a 
i5-ton  steam  road-roller,  and  the  rolling  continued  until  the  roller 
produces  an  even,  uniform,  hard  surface  over  the  whole  road.  Any 
depressions  or  unevenness  occurring  in  the  surface  during  the  pro- 
cess of  rolling  to  be  promptly  remedied  by  picking  up  with  a  pick 
the  defective  places  and  adding  the  requisite  quantity  of  fresh  stone 
to  bring  up  the  surface  to  the  proper  level. 

The  Metal  Surface  to  be  Watered  while  being  Rolled. — After  the 
road  has  been  partially  consolidated  a  water  cart  should  precede  the 
steam  roller,  as  wetting  the  metaling  causes  the  pieces  to  glide  more 
readily  together  and  to  be  more  firmly  bound  together  without 
crushing.  The  cost  of  the  water  cart  will  be  more  than  compen- 
sated by  the  greater  expedition  with  which  the  consolidation  can  be 
completed.  This  is  my  experience  of  the  use  of  water.  When  a 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  383 

hard  surface  has  been  effected  by  the  roller,  broken  stone  screenings 
passed  through  a  J^-inch  mesh  screen,  to  be  spread  over  the  metaled 
surface  to  a  depth  of  one  inch,  and  the  road  again  rolled,  until  its 
surface  becomes  such  that  water  will  run  off  it.  The  earthen  sides 
being  now  finally  dressed  and  rolled,  the  whole  road  is  now  com- 
pleted. 

Gravel. — Where  broken  stone  is  not  procurable  at  a  reasonable 
cost,  or  the  exigencies  of  the  local  traffic  does  not  oblige  the  use  of 
so  costly  a  material,  while  gravel  is  readily  obtained,  this  material 
can  be  advantageously  employed  in  making  a  good  road.  The  diffi- 
culty in  dealing  with  gravel  is  that  it  will  not  readily  bind  together 
under  a  roller,  owing  to  the  roundness  of  its  particles,  due  to  the 
attrition  or  manner  in  which  nature  has  formed  it. 

Crushed  Gravel. — If  the  gravel  were  crushed  in  a  stone  crusher, 
made  to  suit  the  smallness  of  its  size,  the  difficulty  due  to  its  round- 
ness would  disappear;  as  the  crushing  machine  would,  by  its  action* 
produce  enough  of  angularity  or  sharpness  of  sides  in  the  particles 
to  enable  them  to  readily  bind  and  not  be  easily  displaced  by  the 
hoofs  of  horses.  Thus  crushed  in  a  machine  its  consolidation  would 
be  effected  in  the  same  manner  as  described  under  the  heading 
broken  stone;  with,  however,  this  exception,  that  the  consolidation 
of  gravel  must  be  effected  in  two  layers  of  3^  inches  each,  the  first 
layer  being  in  great  part,  though  not  thoroughly,  consolidated  before 
the  second  layer  is  added;  the  latter  being  then  rolled  until  a  hard 
compact  surface  results.  A  water  cart  should  also  precede  the 
roller,  as  in  the  case  of  broken  stone,  after  the  surface  has  been  par- 
tially rolled.  For  gravel  a  lo-ton  steam  road-roller  will  suffice, 
owing  to  the  smallness  of  the  particles.  Gravel  thus  treated  in  a 
crusher  would  prove  a  fair  substitute  for  broken  stone  where  the 
traffic  was  not  very  heavy,  and  where  it  is  readily  procurable.  It 
is  far  cheaper  than  stone,  requiring  in  many  cases  to  be  but  shoveled 
into  a  wagon,  and  it  will  cost  less  to  crush  and  roll 

If,  however,  the  gravel  is  to  be  used  in  its  natural  state,  as  got 
from  pits  and  the  beds  of  rivers,  a  certain  portion  of  dry,  pulverized 
clay,  in  the  proportion  of  one  of  clay  to  eight  of  gravel,  must  be 
mixed  with  it  before  it  is  spread  on  the  prepared  earthen  surface 
or  road-bed,  on  which  it  should  be  placed,  as  already  directed,  in 
two  layers  of  three  and  a-half  (3^)  inches  each,  and  consolidated  in 
the  manner  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  A  layer  of 
about  one-third  of  an  inch  (not  more)  of  sand  should  be  strewn 
over  the  consolidated  surface,  and  the  roller  finally  passed  over  it 
until  the  sand  is  absorbed  in  the  gravel  surface. 

Coarse  Sand. — I  have  also  used  coarse  sand  as  a  road  material, 
the  largest  particles  of  which  were  about  the  size  of  peas.  This 


384  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

will  not  make  a  first-class  road  in  very  wet  weather,  but  will  make  a 
good  dry-weather  road,  and  will  render  an  otherwise  impassable 
road,  in  wet  weather,  such  that  a  team  will  pull  a  load  through 
somehow,  as  the  expression  goes.  It  is  a  cheap  method  of  paving  a 
fairly  good  road  for  nine-tenths  of  the  year.  It  may  be  the  fore- 
runner of  a  good  macadamized  road,  when  the  exigencies  of  traffic 
demand  the  latter.  The  sand  should  be  screened  so  that  a  portion 
of  the  finer  grains  are  eliminated  from  the  mass.  The  road-bed 
should  be  prepared  as  previously  described,  and  not  more  that  two 
inches  of  sand  spread  at  one  time,  and  then  rolled.  The  roller,  a 
lo-ton  steam  roller,  being  preceded  by  a  water  cart.  The  road 
should  then  be  open  to  traffic  fora  month  or  more,  and  then  another 
layer  of  from  one  to  two  inches  added,  this  again  rolled,  and  so  on, 
until  some  six  or  eight  inches  of  coarse  sand  has  been  absorbed, 
when  a  fairly  passable  road  in  ordinary  wet  weather  will  result. 
Frequent  rolling  during  the  year  will  keep  it  a  good  road  in  fine 
weather  and  a  passable  one  in  wet.  Where,  for  miles,  a  road  runs 
along  a  river  or  sandy  creek,  the  procedure  above  described  will 
prove  a  cheap  method  of  paving  a  fairly  passable  road  even  in 
ordinary  wet  weather. 

Trees. — Suitable  shade  trees  should  be  planted  along  the  lower 
berms  reserved  for  such  purpose.  They  should  be  planted  six  feet 
from  the  toe  of  the  earthen  embankment  of  the  road,  and  30  feet 
apart. 

Mile  Posts. — A  first-class  road  may  be  said  to  be  incomplete 
without  mile  posts.  The  initial  point  of  measurement  for  these 
should  be  some  prominent  building  in  the  city  from  which  the 
country  roads  radiate.  The  mileage  numbers  should  be  of  a  size  so 
that  he  who  rides  may  read. 

THE  REPAIR  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  ROADS. 

A  road  however  well  constructed  will  wear  under  traffic  ;  and, 
therefore,  repairs,  and  in  time  more  or  less  renewal,  of  its  maca- 
damized or  metaled  surface  is  necessary. 

The  Effect  of  Traffic  on  a  Metaled  £oad.—T\\z  first  effect  of 
traffic  on  a  country  road  is  the  formation  of  ruts  by  the  continuous 
passing  of  wheels  over  the  same  parts  of  the  road.  If  these  be  not 
repaired  or  refilled  they  at  length  become  so  deep,  and  the  crust  of 
metal  below  proportionately  so  thin  as  to  be  unable  to  sustain  the 
weight  of  a  heavily  laden  wagon.  The  wheels  then  break  through 
to  the  earthen  base.  The  holes  thus  formed  fill  with  water  which 
softens  the  earth  below,  and  every  wagon  wheel  moving  along  the 
same  line  goes  with  a  thud  into  these  holes,  increasing  them  in 
length,  breadth  and  depth  ;  and  the  road  thereafter  becomes  an 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  385 

impediment  rather  than  an  aid  to  traffic.  In  a  city  there  is  not  the 
same  tendency  to  form  ruts  as  on  a  country  road,  as  in  the  former 
the  frequent  changes  of  direction  to  avoid  other  vehicles  produces 
a  more  uniform  wear  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  road. 

How  to  Make  Repairs. — As  soon,  therefore,  as  a  rut  or  hole,  or 
depression  becomes  one  and  a  half  (i£)  inches  deep  on  a  broken 
stone  road,  or  one  inch  deep  on  a  graveled  road,  the  rut  or  depres- 
sion should  be  repaired  or  refilled  in  the  following  manner  :  The 
part  affected  should  be  cut  out  square  (to  use  a  well  understood 
expression),  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  to  the  depth  worn  out,  and 


the  space  thus  excavated  refilled  with  the  same  description  of  fresh 
material  to  a  height  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  sides  of  the  exca- 
vation, so  that  it  will  sink  down  to  that  level  when  consolidated.  If 
the  rut  or  hole  thus  repaired  be  of  small  extent  the  section  hand  in 
charge  of  the  repairs  of  that  portion  of  the  road  should  go  over  it 
with  a  stone  or  iron  rammer,  about  7  inches  diameter,  and  weighing 
about  fourteen  (14)  pounds,  and  ram  it  to  a  hard  surface,  using  the 
material  dug  out  of  the  hole,  instead  of  screenings,  for  the  top  coat. 
If  the  rut  repaired  be  of  any  appreciable  length  it  should  be  gone 
over  by  a  small  road  iron  roller  drawn  by  a  single  or  double  team 
according  to  the  width  of  the  rut,  and  the  size  or  weight  of  the 
roller  necessary  to  consolidate  it.  For  the  purpose  of  these  repairs 
there  should  be  a  two-ton  and  four-ton  roller  on  the  road  establish- 
ment, to  draw  which  teams  should  either  be  kept  or  hired  when 
necessary.  The  section  man  in  charge  of  repairs  should  always  have 
the  means  at  hand  of  repairing  the  road. 

Repair  Material. — To  enable  him  to  conveniently  do  so  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  broken  stone  should  be  stacked  at  every  100  feet 
along  the  lower  earthen  berm  reserved  for  trees.  The  quantity  thus 
stacked  at  intervals  of  100  feet  should  not  be  less  than  a  cubic  yard 
of  road  metal,  or  52  cubic  yards  to  the  mile. 

Repair  Implements. — The  section  hand  should  also  be  provided 
with  a  wheelbarrow,  a  pick,  shovel,  spade,  four-pound  hammer,  and 
a  road  rammer,  as  implements  for  the  execution  of  his  work.  When 
the  repair  material  thus  conveniently  placed  at  his  disposal  has  been 
reduced  by  use  to  about  one-third  of  a  cubic  yard  the  stack  should 
be  renewed  to  the  full  cubic  yard. 

Repairs  of  Gravel  Roads. — By  the  means  just  mentioned  the 
section  man  will  always  have  at  hand  the  means  of  repairing  the 


386  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

road  the  moment  he  considers  such  necessary.  When  a  graveled 
road  shows  signs  of  roughness  or  disintegration  of  surface,  the  best 
remedy  is  to  fill  up  all  unevenness  with  the  stated  mixture  of  clay 
and  gravel,  and  to  pass  a  steam  roller  over  it,  preceded  by  a  water 
cart  or  after  a  shower  of  rain. 

Repair  of  Earthen  Sides. — The  earthen  sides  to  be  kept  in 
repair  by  excavating  the  earth  required  from  the  side  trenches.  By 
this  means  the  double  object  will  be  effected  of  keeping  the  trenches 
clean  and  free  from  drainage,  and  the  earthen  sides  of  the  road  in 
proper  order. 

Itemoval  of  Dust. — In  France  it  has  been  found  by  experiment 
that  a  road  wears  better  by  removing  the  dust  off  it;  this  dust  act- 
ing as  emery  powder  does  in  the  hands  of  a  jeweler.  Where  labor 
is  cheap,  the  removal  of  dust  might  be  effected  by  human  labor,  but 
I  doubt  whether  it  would  be  advantageous  to  do  so  in  America.  I 
have  never  seen  a  sweeping  machine,  such  as  is  used  on  stone  and 
asphalt  pavement,  tried  on  a  macadamized  or  broken  stone  road; 
but  if  it  took  off  the  dust  without  disintegrating  the  road  surface,  it 
might  be  advantageously  used  on  that  portion  of  a  road  within  four 
or  five  miles  of  a  city. 

Renewal  of  Metaling. — When  the  general  surface  of  any  length 
of  road  is  so  worn  as  to  be  reduced  to  about  4^  inches  in  thickness,  a 
renewal  of  its  surface  is  necessary  by  the  addition  of  a  coat  of  as 
much  new  metal  as  will  bring  it  to  the  original  thickness.  The 
reduction  of  thickness  from  wear  can  be  determined  by  exposing 
the  stone  bench  marks  placed,  as  has  been  directed,  every  50  feet 
along  the  center  and  edges  of  the  metaling.  The  old  surface  should 
be  roughened  up  by  means  of  a  pick,  and  the  new  metal  added  and 
consolidated  in  the  manner  already  described  for  the  original  metal- 
ing of  a  road. 

County  Engineer  and  Assistant  Engineer. — For  each  county  there 
should  be  an  engineer  and  assistant,  whose  duties  should  not  be 
solely  confined  to  the  earthwork  and  metaled  surface  of  the  road, 
but  who  should  also  have  the  designing  and  construction  of  all  cul- 
verts and  bridges  required  for  the  cross  drainage  that  impinges 
along  the  road  alignment.  Both  these  officials  to  be  appointed  by 
the  County  Commissioners  from  qualified  engineers,  of  not  less  than 
eight  years'  professional  standing  in  the  case  of  the  engineer,  and 
five  years  Qf  his  assistant.  The  salary  of  the  former  should  not  be 
under  $1,800  a  year,  and  of  the  latter  not  under  $1,200,  with  ten 
cents  per  mile  added  in  each  case  for  every  mile  traveled  on  duty  ; 
with  the  exception  that  no  mileage  allowance  be  granted  for  dis- 
tances under  five  miles  from  headquarters  or  place  of  residence,  per- 
manent or  temporary. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  387 

State  Engineer. — There  should  also  be  a  State  or  chief  engineer, 
whose  jurisdiction  should  extend  over  all  the  county  engineers,  who 
should  submit  to  him  all  their  plans  for  both  road  and  bridge  con- 
struction. The  chief  engineer  should  be  competent  to  advise  the 
county  engineers  on  all  matters  pertaining  to  their  duties.  There 
would  thus  be  a  guarantee  for  efficiency  and  uniformity  in  all  works 
undertaken  throughout  the  State. 

Minor  Establishment. — For  road  repairs  there  should  be  a  sec- 
tion hand  in  charge  of  the  repairs  of  two  to  four  miles  of  road 
according  to  the  amount  of  traffic  ;  and  a  foreman,  with  extra  salary 
for  a  horse,  for  every  30  miles  of  road.  When  special  repairs  were 
needed,  the  petty  establishment  should  of  course  be  increased. 
There  should  be  at  least  one  steam  road  roller  for  every  county,  and 
a  2-ton  and  4-ton  horse  iron  roller  for  every  20  miles  of  road. 

The  present  system  of  repairing  and  maintaining  country  roads, 
by  exacting  so  many  days'  labor  in  the  year  from  the  farmers, 
should  cease.  It  is  obvious  from  what  has  been  stated  that  roads 
cannot  be  maintained  in  good  order  under  such  a  system. 

Cost  of  Road  Earthwork. — The  cost  of  constructing  roads  in  the 
manner  directed  in  this  treatise  will  vary,  in  the  case  of  the  earthen 
road-bed,  according  to  the  undulating  or  hilly  nature  of  the 
country  passed  through.  In  the  prairie  lands  of  Illinois,  Minnesota, 
Iowa,  Texas,  etc.,  the  cost  of  the  earthen  road-bed  will  be  from  $500 
to  $800  per  mile  ;  in  more  undulating  land,  from  $700  to  $1,500, 
and  in  hilly  country  from  $1,500  to  $2,500  per  mile.  Special  miles 
will  in  each  cost  above  these  figures. 

Cost  of  Broken  Stone  Metal. — The  cost  of  the  macadamized  or 
metaled  surface  will  vary  according  to  the  material  and  the  distance 
it  is  transported.  It  will  he  from  50  to  75  cents  per  consolidated 
square  yard,  for  a  6-inch  consolidated  thickness,  if  of  broken  stone; 
or  from  $5,000  to  $7,500  per  mile. 

Cost  of  a  Graveled  Road. — If  the  material  be  gravel,  the  cost 
will  vary  from  30  to  50  cents  per  consolidated  square  yard  of  6-inch 
thickness,  or  $3,000  to  $5,000  per  mile. 


APPENDIX. 

The  preceding  notes  and  remarks  on  the  construction  of  mac- 
adamized roads  is  the  result  of  many  years'  experience  in  their 
construction  in  British  India,  in  the  Public  Works  Department  of  the 
Government  of  India.  The  country  roads  there  are  all  macadam- 
ized or  metaled,  to  use  a  more  familiar  term  in  use  there.  They  are 
also  thoroughly  maintained  in  good  order;  and,  taking  the  vastness 
of  the  country  into  consideration,  and  the  efficient  state  in  which 


388  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

the  roads  are  kept,  they  may  be  said  to  form  the  most  magnificent 
system  of  internal  communication  of  that  nature  in  the  world.  The 
Government  of  British  India  holds  and  acts  up  to  the  principle  that 
it  is  as  necessary  to  keep  the  country  roads  in  good  order  as  it  is  to 
maintain  railroads.  They  each  have  their  value,  and  in  their  way 
should  be  equally  efficient.  The  first  journey  taken  by  all  commod- 
ities is  from  the  farm  or  field  along  a  wagon  road ;  and  it  is  a  just 
and  right  principle  that  the  men  (farmers)  who  convey  these  com- 
modities to  market  and  to  the  railroad  depot  should  have  every 
facility  and  convenience  of  doing  so,  which  can  be  provided  by  good 
roads.  The  time  and  labor  lost  by  the  farmers  in  hauling  their 
goods  along  bad  roads  adds  to  the  price  of  their  commodities — that 
is,  to  the  food  of  the  whole  population,  and  to  all  the  raw  products 
of  commerce  ;  for  the  farmers  must  compensate  themselves  in  some 
measure  for  the  diminished  power  of  their  draught  animals,  and  the 
extra  wear  and  tear  of  their  harness  and  vehicles,  caused  by  bad 
roads.  In  some  transactions  the  loss  suffered  by  one  man  is  the 
gain  of  another,  but  in  the  case  of  bad  roads  there  is  a  general 
yearly  loss  to  the  whole  community  of  many  millions  of  dollars. 
The  Legislature  of  each  State  should  therefore  take  up  the  matter, 
and  establish  such  laws  and  regulations,  and  make  monetary  pro- 
vision for  the  construction  of  so  necessary  a  benefit  to  the  general 
community  as  good  roads.  For  further  reference  regarding  roads, 
see  Harper's  Weekly  of  August  10,  1889. 

An  article  by  Jeremiah  W.  Jenkins,  published  by  the  American 
Economic  Association. 

An  article  in  Scribners  Magazine,  by  N.  S.  Shaler. 

Governor  Hill's  message  to  the  New  York  Legislature  on  the 
necessity  for  constructing  good  roads. 

The  Engineering  and  Building  Record,  of  New  York  and  Lon- 
don, for  the  latter  half  of  the  year  1889  and  beginning  of  1890. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  389 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  ROADS.* 

BY    JOHN    P.    PRITCHARD    (  "  A    SIMPLE    SCRATCH  "  ),    QUINCY,  MASS. 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  have  the  road  properly  laid  out  by  a 
competent  engineer,  making  lines  and  grades  which  include  all 
earthworks,  cutting  and  filling,  culverts,  drains,  bridges,  etc. 

The  earth  road-bed  to  be  free  from  loam  ;  excavate  to  the  re- 
quired depth,  then  grade  to  the  proper  shape  ;  to  be  well  watered 
with  a  one-horse  watering  cart,  and  then  rolled  with  the  steam-roller; 
fill  all  depressions  which  shall  appear  with  the  same  material  as  the 
road-bed,  roll  until  it  is  compact  and  solid,  then  spread  two  inches 
of  sand  over  all  for  a  bed  for  the  paving.  On  this  road-bed  set  the 
paving  stone,  set  a  line  of  paving  through  the  center  of  the  road  9 
inches  in  depth,  then  gradually  diminishing  to  5  inches  to  line  of 
curb,  the  stone  always  to  be  laid  with  the  best  bed  down,  laid  close 
and  in  parallel  lines,  as  near  together  as  possible,  across  the  road, 
breaking  joints.  The  stone  for  each  section  wants  to  be  as  near  of 
a  size  as  possible  ;  no  stone  should  exceed  15  inches,  except  through 
the  middle  of  the  road,  then  a  single  line  can  be  laid  parallel  with 
the  road  ;  after  having  paved  100  feet  the  stone  must  be  wedged  up 
tight  with  spalls,  chips,  etc.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  wedges 
should  be  driven  to  the  bottom  of  the  paving  ;  after  wedging,  all  the 
projections  sticking  up  above  the  grade  line  of  the  paving  should  be 
broken  off  ;  no  wedging  to  be  done  within  15  feet  of  the  face  of  the 
paving  ;  almost  any  kind  of  stone  will  do  for  the  paved  bottom  if 
they  are  carefully  and  well  set ;  after  the  bottom  is  thus  prepared 
the  steam-roller  can  be  run  over  it,  commencing  at  the  curb  ;  work 
towards  the  center  ;  the  amount  of  rolling  for  this  bottom  will  have 
to  depend  on  the  superintendent  of  the  work  ;  never  roll  within  20 
feet  of  the  face  of  the  paving  ;  never  use  screenings  from  gravel  to 
wedge  or  surface  up  the  paved  bottom. 

On  top  of  this  foundation  lay  4  inches  of  broken  stone 
(when  rolled),  not  to  exceed  3  inches  in  size  ;  the  tailings  and 
spalls  from  the  breaker  can  be  carted  on  to  the  road  and  men  with 
hammers  can  break  them  to  the  required  size,  or,  they  can  be  thrown 
on  top  of  the  paving  and  used  for  wedging.  Ballast  and  stone 
chips  from  stone  sheds  can  be  used  for  this  course  if  care  is  taken  to 
have  them  broken  up  to  the  proper  size  ;  in  spreading  this  course 
never  spread  within  18  inches  of  the  curb  line  ;  the  roller  will  take 
care  of  this  space  by  crowding  it  down  to  the  curb  line.  There 
should  not  be  any  stone  less  than  2^  inches  in  this  course  ;  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  pick  out  all  the  round  stone  that  may  appear, 

*  The  Engineering  and  Building  Record  Competition. — Third  Prize 
Essay. 


390  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

if  not  they  will  work  up  through  the  surface.  This  course  is  now 
ready  for  the  roller,  and  a  great  deal  depends  on  properly  rolling 
this  course.  The  flat  stones  must  be  broken  or  picked  out  as  fast  as 
they  appear;  the  water  cart  can  now  be  put  onto  the  road;  it  will  do 
more  good  than  to  put  on  binding,  which  should  be  avoided  if  pos- 
sible, and  should  never  be  resorted  to  unless  the  stone  round  up 
and  will  not  bind  ;  such  places  will  occur  when  very  hard  and 
angular  stone  are  used,  but  a  few  shovels  full  of  binding  and  a  little 
water  will  make  them  bind  all  right. 

On  top  of  this  course  lay  3  inches  of  broken  stone  that  shall 
have  passed  through  a  2-inch  circular  hole,  and  spread  with  a 
shovel ;  never  use  a  "rake ;  be  careful  and  pick  out  all  flat  and 
round  stones.  Use  the  water  cart  freely  on  this  course  if  dry 
weather. 

On  top  of  this  course  lay  enough  broken  stone  that  shall  have 
passed  through  a  i^-inch  circular  hole,  and  spread  with  a  shovel 
thick  enough  to  fill  all  interstices  ;  to  make  it  almost  smooth  this 
course  wants  more  rolling  than  either  of  the  others. 

On  top  of  this  course  comes  the  binding.  Use  the  screenings 
from  the  breaker  that  have  passed  through  a  i-inch  circular  hole, 
2  inches  thick.  This  course  contains  stone  and  dust,  and  when 
it  is  well  watered  and  rolled,  the  dust  and  loam  washed  out  of 
it,  you  will  have  a  good  surface,  and  it  will  be  ready  for  public 
travel. 

Sand  can  be  used  for  binding  instead  of  screenings,  but  in  my 
experience  screenings  are  more  satisfactory  for  our  roads. 

The  stone  used  in  the  second,  third  and  fourth  layers  should  be 
of  one  texture,  near  as  possible  ;  the  wear  will  be  more  even. 

A  great  saving  can  be  made  in  this  class  of  road  by  paving  a 
space  through  the  middle  wide  enough  for  teams  to  pass  both  ways. 
The  sides  can  be  macadam  or  gravel. 

GRAVEL    ROADS. 

In  building  gravel  roads  commence  and  screen  through  a  2^- 
inch  screen  ;  then  screen  this  through  a  i^-inch  screen  ;  then  this 
through  a  %-inch  screen;  when  the  bed  is  properly  shaped,  wet  and 
rolled,  put  on  the  2^-inch,  wet  and  roll;  then  put  on  the  i^-inch, 
wet  and  roll ;  then  put  on  the  %-inch,  wet  and  roll.  The  required 
thickness  of  each  course  will  depend  on  the  kind  of  road  you  are 
building.  For  main  or  side  roads  the  custom  in  most  towns  is  to 
take  the  gravel  from  the  bank,  dump  it  on  the  road,  throw  the  loose 
stones  into  the  bottom,  and  cover  them  up  with  the  small  ones  ;  in  a 
few  years  the  small  ones  are  on  the  bottom  and  the  large  ones  are 
kicking  about  the  top  of  the  road. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  391 

MACADAM    ROADS. 

Have  the  bed  properly  shaped,  wet  and  rolled  ;  coarse  stone 
ballast  tailings  from  the  breaker  will  do  for  the  foundation  course, 
but  they  must  be  well  broken  so  they  will  all  be  of  even  size.  Next 
a  course  of  2^-inch  from  the  breaker,  four  inches  thick  ;  next 
course  2-inch  from  the  breaker,  three  inches  thick  ;  next  course 
surface  up  with  i^-inch,  well  rolled  ;  cover  with  screenings  from 
the  breaker  that  have  passed  through  the  i-inch  circular  hole. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  flat  and  round  stones,  as  well 
as  all  rotten  stone  excluded ;  all  courses  to  be  well  watered  and 
rolled.  Have  the  two  last  courses  of  one  texture,  as  near  as 
possible. 

MAINTENANCE    OF    ROADS. 

After  a  road  has  been  properly  constructed  it  should  always  be 
maintained,  no  matter  what  the  amount  of  travel  there  is  on  it. 
Ruts  and  hollows  must  be  filled  up  as  soon  as  they  appear.  No 
water  should  be  allowed  to  stand  on  top  of  the  road  ;  keep  the  road 
as  free  from  dust  and  mud  as  possible.  When  filling  ruts  and  holes 
good  hard  metal  that  has  passed  through  a  circular  hole,  one  and  a 
half  or  two  inches,  should  be  used,  loosening  the  bottom  with  a  pick  to 
facilitate  the  binding.  To  repair  a  macadam  road  put  the  spikes  into 
the  roller ;  go  over  it  three  or  four  times,  pick  out  all  the  large 
stones  or  break  them  up,  then  run  the  roller  over  just  enough  to 
smooth  it  up  a  little,  then  put  on  the  stone,  never  over  2}4-inches  in 
size,  and  for  side  streets  2  inches  will  do  ;  then  surface  with  i^-inch 
size,  wet  and  roll.  You  will  not  have  to  put  any  binding  on  this, 
for  enough  binding  will  work  up  through  it  if  it  is  properly  wet  and 
rolled.  The  great  trouble  in  regard  to  the  maintenance  of  roads  in 
Massachusetts  is  that  in  the  fall,  winter  and  spring,  when  the  roads 
need  looking  after  the  most  of  any  time  in  the  year,  the  appropria- 
tions are  all  spent,  the  men  discharged,  and  nothing  can  be  done 
until  after  the  annual  elections ;  then  they  have  no  time  to  look 
after  repairs,  but  get  to  work  on  new  work,  and  before  they  get  half 
done  on  the  work  laid  out  to  do  the  money  is  all  gone.  We  shall 
never  have  good  roads  in  Massachusetts  until  the  business  of  road- 
building  is  taken  out  of  politics  and  taken  in  charge  of  by  the 
State. 

Good  roads  can  be  constructed  by  towns,  if  they  are  not  rich 
enough  to  buy  a  steam  roller,  but  no  town  can  afford  to  be  without 
a  stone-breaker ;  and  because  a  town  does  not  own  a  steam  roller 
or  stone-breaker  it  is  no  excuse  that  they  cannot  build  good  roads. 
With  forty  or  fifty  stone-breaking  hammers,  an  iron  sectional  roller 
weighing  two  tons,  and  a  competent  man  as  superintendent,  good 


392  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

roads  can  be  built.  I  built  a  mile  and  a  half  of  Telford  road  before 
I  even  knew  how  to  use  a  steam  roller  or  a  stone-breaker.  They 
will  cost  more  though  and  take  more  time  to  build. 

A  good  road  plant  consists  of  a  10  or  15  ton  steam  road 
roller,  a  9x15  stone  breaker,  and  a  revolving  screen  with  i-inch, 
i YZ -inch,  and  2-inch  circular  holes.  A  great  saving  can  be 
made  in  breaking  stone  by  having  the  breaker  set  up  15  or 
20  feet  above  grade,  or  an  elevator  can  be  used  to  convey 
the  stone,  and  have  the  top  of  the  mouth  to  the  breaker  even 
with  the  floor.  This  saves  a  great  deal  of  handling  the  stone.  One 
man  can  do  as  much  as  two  where  they  have  to  be  lifted  from  the 
platform.  Another  advantage  of  setting  up  the  breaker  is  that 
hoppers  can  be  constructed  and  the  stone  drop  direct  into  the  mouth 
of  the  screen  from  the  breaker,  then  three  different  sizes  into  the 
hoppers.  Each  hopper  contains  40  tons.  These  hoppers  can  rest 
on  a  heavy  frame  of  hard  pine  timber,  high  enough  from  the  ground 
so  that  a  cart  can  be  backed  under  any  of  them,  and  by  the  simple 
motion  of  drawing  a  lever  allows  the  contents  of  the  hoppers  to  fall 
directly  into  the  carts,  and  a  reverse  motion  of  the  lever  closes  the 
slide  tight.  A  cart  can  be  rilled  in  one  minute.  Three  men  can 
break  100  tons  a  day.  Cities  and  towns  will  find  it  to  their  advan- 
tage to  look  into  this  mode  of  arranging  their  stone  breakers. 
There  is  a  stone  breaker  at  work  in  a  city  near  Boston  that  takes 
nine  men  and  two  horses  to  keep  it  a  going.  The  reason  of  this  is 
because  it  is  set  on  the  ground,  and  the  stones  have  to  be  handled 
over  twice  before  they  are  put  on  to  the  road.  They  are  shoveled  into 
the  carts  by  hand — but  don't  it  make  work  for  the  poor  laboring 
man  ?  and  don't  we  want  his  vote  ?  That  is  the  whole  secret  of  bad 
roads  in  Massachusetts.  Potter  says  bad  roads  have  a  tendency  to 
make  the  country  disagreeable  as  a  dwelling  place,  and  a  town 
which  is  noted  for  its  bad  roads  is  shunned  by  people  in  search  of 
rural  homes.  There  is  no  kind  of  work  done  in  the  New  England 
States  that  there  is  so  much  money  wasted  on  as  there  is  in  building 
and  taking  care  of  roads.  Shaler  says,  in  no  phase  of  public  duties 
does  the  American  citizen  appear  to  such  disadvantage  as  in  road 
building.  Learned  says  towns  complain  of  the  first  cost  of  macadam 
roads,  while  annually  spending  millions  of  dollars  and  moving  count- 
less tons  of  earth  without  having  a  good  road.  Whether  I  get  the 
prize  or  not  for  this  essay,  if  it  can  be  called  so,  if  my  instructions 
are  followed  in  regard  to  Telford  road  building  by  any  competent 
superintendent,  I  shall  have  no  fears  as  to  the  result,  for  I  have  been 
building  just  these  kinds  of  roads  since  1877,  and  some  of  them  are 
having  the  heaviest  traffic  passing  over  them  of  any  place  in  this 
country ;  talk  about  your  thin  roads,  we  would  cut  them  up  in  one 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  393 

week  with  the  rain-fall  we  have  had  this  winter.  I  can't  say  any- 
thing about  asphalt ;  I  wish  I  could  ;  I  have  never  had  anything  to 
do  with  it,  but  I  have  great  faith  in  it,  and  it  will  be  the  coming 
paving  ;  it  is  only  a  question  of  time. 

The  roads  that  I  have  built  are  open  for  inspection.  I  have 
not  given  the  cost  of  any  of  the  roads  that  I  have  built,  because  the 
prices  must  vary  according  to  the  length  of  haul  and  price  of  stone. 
I  built  a  mile  of  Telford  road,  40  foot  roadway,  for  $7,000.  I  have 
built  a  half  a  mile  that  cost  $8,000.  The  first  one,  some  of  the 
material  was  hauled  over  half  a  mile  ;  the  other,  some  of  the  material 
was  hauled  three  miles.  Seventy-five  cents  per  square  yard  is  the 
price  quoted  by  the  different  road  builders  as  a  fair  price  for  Telford 
roads. 

Good  sidewalks  this  season  of  the  year  is  what  we  want.  The 
best  material  for  muddy  walks  is  coal  ashes  ;  mix  a  little  loam  and 
loose  fine  salt ;  have  it  mixed  up  in  large  piles,  when  you  have  soft 
weather  and  the  frost  is  coming  out  of  the  ground,  you  will  find  it  a 
good  deal  better  than  gravel  ;  it  will  bind  and  become  compact  with 
a  good  smooth  surface  and  will  shed  the  water.  Every  town  should 
have  a  large  shed  where  they  could  have  the  good  clean  ashes  that 
is  collected  and  deposited  ready  for  emergencies. 


NOTE. 

IN  preparing  the  following  abstracts  of  the  essays  given  Hon- 
orable Mention,  the  purpose  of  the  Committee  of  Award  was  to 
confine  them  to  such  propositions  as  were  not  substantially  covered 
in  the  three  essays  published — and  thus  avoid  unnecessary  repe- 
tition. The  omission  of  parts  will,  therefore,  be  understood  as  no 
reflection  on  the  essays. 


BY  PROF.  JOHN  V.  HAZEN   ("GRANITE    STATE"),  HANOVER,  N.  H.. 

(Abstract.} 

Services  of  an  Engineer  Should  be  Secured. — The  skill  of  a  com- 
petent engineer  is  of  great  value  in  laying  out  roads.  Figure  i 
shows  an  old  and  a  new  road  laid  out  in  writer's  native  town.  The 
new  road  is  only  234  feet  longer,  and  an  elevation  of  60  feet  is  saved 
and  maximum  grades  are  reduced  from  i  in  4  to  i  in  10,  and  might 
have  been  reduced  more. 


394 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 


Curving  Roads  not  so  Much  Longer  as  They  Seem. — Curving 
roads  on  a  flat  country  are  not  so  much  longer  as  they  seem.  A 
road  between  two  places,  five  miles  apart,  curving  so  that  the  eye 
can  nowhere  see  further  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  will  only  be  225 


jfta.be.' 


feet  longer  than  a  straight  one  joining  the  same  termini.  Within 
proper  limits  a  road  may  wisely  be  increased  in  length  by  15  times 
the  vertical  height  avoided  by  the  detour. 

A  Narrow  Road  Frequently  the  Best. — A  well  kept  narrow  road, 
when  width  is  sufficient  for  traffic,  is  much  better  than  a  broad  one 
with  no  greater  amount  expended  for  repairs. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  395 

Earthwork  Paid  f>>r  in  Excavation. — Earthwork  and  rockwork 
should  be  paid  for  in  excavation  on  account  of  shrinkage  in  the 
former  and  increase  in  volume  of  the  latter  when  placed  in  embank- 
ment. 

The  Best  Embankment  Built  in  Layers. — Embankments  are 
usually  made  by  dumping  the  earth  from  their  ends,  keeping  them 
up  to  their  ultimate  height,  but  wider  at  the  top  and  narrower  at 
base  than  when  finished.  The  better  system  is  to  make  them  in 
layers  of  a  foot  thick,  each  successive  layer  being  compacted  by 
depositing  those  which  follow. 

Method  of  Underdrawing. — For  underdrainage  in  heavy  soil 
ditches  are  dug  transversely  of  the  streets  at  intervals  of  20  to  30 
feet,  and  with  a  fall  of  from  i  in  100  to  i  in  20.  The  drain  may  be 
of  stone  or  brick,  built  like  a  small  culvert,  or  of  agricultural  tile. 
The  latter  are  the  most  effective  and  generally  cost  no  more.  Two- 
inch  tiles  cost  from  $11  to  $20  per  1,000  feet.  They  should  be  laid 
with  above  fall,  with  the  closest  possible  joint,  end  to  end,  in  a  nar- 
row trench  of  uniform  slope  carefully  aligned.  Such  a  drain  placed 
2  feet  deep  will  cost,  with  tiles  at  $15  per  1,000,  about  45  cents  per 
rod  when  completed. 

The  English  Method  of  Laying. — J.  Bailey  Denton,  an  English 
authority,  advocates  two  lines  of  2-inch  tiles  beneath  the  two  edges 
of  the  traveled  road  longitudinally.  Others  place  a  line  of  tiles 
directly  beneath  the  side  ditches  relieving  them  of  much  surplus 
water.  This  has  the  disadvantage  of  not  much  removing  the  moisture 
from  center  of  the  roadway.  In  another  system  one  line  of  3-inch 
tile  is  placed  directly  beneath  the  center  of  traveled  road.  This  has 
the  advantage  of  being  cheaper  than  the  others;  of  conveying  away 
the  moisture  from  center  of  the  roadway,  and,  on  the  whole,  is  the 
most  satisfactory.  Cross  drains  connect  at  intervals  the  second  and 
fourth  systems  with  the  side  ditches,  the  latter  being  sufficiently 
deep  to  receive  the  outflow.  Well  built  gutters,  18  to  24  inches 
deep  below  bed  of  road,  with  finished  surface  of  side  ditch  above, 
kept  clean,  free  from  grass,  weeds  and  stones,  will  frequently  render 
underdrainage  unnecessary  even  in  quite  moist  soils. 

Culverts. — Culverts  for  transferring  the  water  from  the  higher 
to  the  lower  gutters  should  be  put  in  at  every  depression.  These 
may  be  of  vitrified  stone  20  to  24  inches  in  diameter,  oval  or  egg- 
shaped  cement  pipe  of  stone,  brick,  or  of  wood  if  constantly  under 
water.  Culverts  should  have  a  fall  of  at  least  i  in  100.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  make  them  large  enough  to  carry  away  the  water  with- 
out overflow.  A  rule  sometimes  used  is  A  =  C/y/  M  where  A  =  area 
of  opening;  M  =  drainage  area  in  acres,  and  C  —  A  coefficient  de- 
pending on  country;  as  i  for  a  flat  country,  i-j6^  for  hilly,  and  4  for 
mountainous. 


396  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

Earth  Roads. — While  earth  roads  are  not  ideal  roads,  they  are 
frequently  the  best  a  town's  finances  will  allow.  Their  ordinary  con- 
dition may  be  much  improved  by  careful  attention  to  grades,  sur- 
face drainage,  underdraining,  and  keeping  the  surface  as  nearly 
homogeneous  and  hard  as  possible.  An  occasional  rolling  will  have 
a  marked  effect. 

Amount  of  Rolling. — The  total  amount  of  rolling  necessary  will 
vary  with  materials  and  soil.  From  30  to  60  hours  per  1,000  yards 
is  desirable.  Silicious  sand,  clay  or  clean  sharp  gravel  are  some- 
times used  as  a  binding  material.  The  amount  of  crowning  in  use 
varies  from  -f%  to  -fa  of  the  chord,  or  a  slope  of  i  in  24  to  i  in  40. 
Some  engineers  increase  the  slope  with  the  grade.  In  Providence 
grades  of 

0.5  to  4  feet  per  100  have  a  transverse  slope  of  .04  per  foot. 
4      to  6  "  "  4<  "  .05         " 

6      to  9  "  "  "  "  .08        " 

This  provides  for  a  rapid  conveyance  of  surface  water  to  side 
ditches.  The  total  thickness  of  macadam  varies  with  the  locality. 
Six  to  ten  inches  is  the  usual  thickness.  The  latter  being  used  in  or 
near  cities.  Good  roads  have  been  made  only  4  inches  thick,  and 
as  it  is  often  a  question  of  thin  roads  or  no  improved  roads,  they  are 
worthy  of  trial.  A  lo-inch  road  costs  from  $i  to  $1.75  per  square 
yard,  while  good  4-inch  roads  have  been  built  for  28  to  38  cents. 
Where  the  traffic  increases,  or  sub-soil  is  soft,  the  thickness  should 
be  increased.  Some  engineers  vary  the  thickness  with  the  grades, 
decreasing  it  as  the  grades  increase;  4  to  6-inch  roads  recently  built 
near  Plainfield,  N.  J.,  are  said  to  have  cost  from  $3,000  to  $8,000 
per  mile;  some  4-inch  roads  in  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  about  $3,000  per 
mile. 

Quality  of  Stones  of  Sub-pavement. — In  Telford  paving  the 
spaces  between  the  blocks  should  not  be  filled  with  anything  smaller 
than  stone  chips,  otherwise  an  essential  characteristic,  capacity  to 
drain  off  rapidly  whatever  surface  water  works  through,  would  be 
destroyed. 

Total  Thickness  of  Pavement. — The  total  thickness  of  Telford 
pavement  will  vary  much  with  the  locality  and  expected  traffic.  It 
should  never  be  less  than  6  and  seldom  more  than  16  inches,  and  it 
may  decrease  as  the  grade  increases.  In  cost  they  vary  from  90 
cents  to  $1.75  per  square  yard.  Some  roads  recently  built  in  New 
Jersey  cost  from  $8,000  to  $10,000  per  mile. 

Advantages  of  Telford  Roads.— The  advantages  claimed  for 
Telford  roads  are  that  the  sub-pavement  needs  no  renewal,  and 
provides  for  thorough  drainage.  That  in  clayey,  compressible  soils 
the  clay  does  not  work  up  into  the  voids;  that  the  broken  stone  does 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  397 

not  work  down  into  the  soil ;  that  extreme  winter  weather  has  no 
effect  upon  it  nor  does  the  ensuing  thawing  out.  The  advocates  of 
macadam  roads  claim  that  the  earth  does  work  up  into  the  voids  of 
a  Telford  pavement;  that  the  broken  stone  works  down  into  the 
same  voids,  and  that  the  broken  stone  wears  out  much  more  rapidly 
on  a  Telford  sub-pavement  than  on  compressed  earth. 

Good  Foundation  Important. — Foundations  may  be  made  of  sand 
or  blast  furnace  slag  compacted  by  rolling. 

Repair  of  Earth  Roads. — Earth  roads  should  be  kept  smooth, 
hard,  up  to  grade  and  cross-section  by  the  addition  of  suitable 
materials  at  frequent  intervals,  and  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  on 
all  places  out  of  grade,  securing  a  surface  such  as  shall  quickly 
convey  the  water  to  side  ditches.  The  latter  should  be  kept  open, 
of  uniform  and  sufficient  slope,  free  from  rocks,  ridges,  depressions, 
and  continuous  to  some  natural  or  artificial  outlet.  Sprinkling  and 
rolling  are  valuable  adjuncts  of  repair,  especially  in  dry  weather,  and 
a  thorough  rolling  in  spring,  after  ground  has  settled,  is  of  marked 
benefit. 

Sprinkling  and  Rolling  Advantages. — In  dry  weather,  sprinkling 
and  running  the  road-roller  backwards  and  forwards  over  a  macadam 
road  will  preserve  its  surface,  or  if  water  is  not  at  hand  a  coating  of 
sand  or  other  binding  material  does  the  same. 

Repair  of  Large  Areas. — When  large  areas  are  repaired,  the 
work,  if  possible,  should  be  done  in  damp  weather. 

Thickness  Worn  Out  per  Annum. — French  experience  shows 
that,  measured  by  thickness,  the  annual  wear  on  ordinary  country 
roads  is  seldom  over  £  inch,  and  on  the  most  frequented  roads  i 
inch.  Systematically  maintained  English  roads  confirm  these  results. 

Cost  of  Breaking  Stone  and  Repairing  Roads. — It  costs  70  to  80 
cents  per  cubic  yard  to  break  trap  rock  with  crushers  ;  the  cost  of 
delivery  varies  with  the  distance,  about  $1.10  for  two  miles,  or  a 
total  of  $1.90.  For  £-inch  wear,  road  20  feet  wide,  it  will  take  about 
164  yards,  costing  $300  per  mile  for  material. 

Plainfield,  N.  J.,  roads  are  said  to  have  cost  last  year,  with 
careful  watching  and  immediate  repair  of  weak  spots,  $1,000  for  40 
miles.  Time  will  show  annual  cost  for  complete  maintenance. 

Cost  of  Transportation  on  Poor  Roads. — On  a  macadam  road, 
recently  built  in  Connecticut,  it  is  said  that  5,000  pounds  can  be 
hauled  where  1,200  to  2,000  was  a  good  load  before  rebuilding  for 
the  same  team.  A  farmer  living  ten  miles  from  market,  and  having 
100  tons  annually  to  sell,  on  the  unimproved  road  would  have  to 
make  at  least  100  trips,  on  improved  road  40,  a  saving  of  60  days' 
time,  which,  at  $2.50  per  day,  would  be  $150  ;  probably  several 
times  his  tax  for  the  improvement. 


398 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 


Follow  Good  Roads. — The  introduction  of  macadam 
roads  in  parts  of  New  Jersey  is  said  to  have  doubled,  in  some  cases, 
the  value  of  real  estate. 


Hoboken  to  Patei 

Bridgeport,  Conn 
Plainfield,  N.  J.., 
Fairfield,  Conn  .  . 
Franklin  Townshi 

Westfield,  N.  J.. 
Fanwood,  N.  J.  .  , 

Union  Township, 

Linden  Township 
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Kansas  City  has  just  renewed  five  miles  at  prices  varying  from 
1.17  to  $1.85  per  yard. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 


399 


SAMUEL    L.    COOPER  ("  PALISADES*'),    NEW    YORK    CITY. 

{Abstract.} 

Grades  on  First  Class  Roads. — It  costs  more  to  maintain  a 
grade  of  i  in  20,  than  a  grade  of  i  in  40. 

Width  of  Roads. — The  metal  should  be  16  feet  wide  for  ordi- 
nary country  roads,  and  as  much  wider  up  to  25  feet  as  the  money 
available  will  permit ;  but  for  village  roads  and  suburban  pleasure 
drives,  the  metal  should  extend  across  the  road  to  the  gutter  pave- 
ment on  each  side.  Expense  of  making  the  metal  16  feet  wide  will 
sometimes  compel  a  narrower  width,  but  it  should  not  be  made  less 
than  13  feet,  as  that  is  the  minimum  width  on  which  wagons  can 
pass  each  other  with  safety.  The  following  are  suggestions  for 
dimensions  of  roads  of  different  classes  : 


Total 
Width. 

Width 
Roadway. 

Metaled 
Width. 

For  a  First-Class  Road  

75  to  100 

40  to  60 

25  to  35 

For  a  Second-Class  Road  

50  to  66 

25  to  35 

16  to  25 

For  a  Third-Class  Road  

40 

.25 

13 

Cr(nun. — When  the  surface  of  a  road  is  poor  the  crown  should 
be  greater. 

Consolidation  vs.  Mass. — Perfection  in  roads  cannot  be  obtained 
without  proper  consolidation  of  the  materials  that  make  the  road. 
This  is  more  important  than  mere  mass  without  consolidation. 

Steam  Roller. — It  can  best  be  obtained  by  a  steam  roller  of 
about  ten  tons  weight,  and  any  community  that  seeks  the  best  roads 
for  the  least  outlay  can  get  the  most  for  its  money  by  using  the  best 
materials,  buying  a  steam  roller,  and  employing  an  intelligent  road 
builder  to  make  the  roads  and  maintain  them. 

For  Macadam. — Each  layer  of  stone  must  have  a  certain 
amount  of  binder  to  make  it  a  compact  mass.  The  best  material 
for  the  purpose  is  screening  from  the  crusher,  but  when  that  is  not 
available,  clean  gravel  and  sharp  sand  should  be  used. 

The  rolling  should  be  continued  on  the  finish  until  water  will 
flush  over  the  entire  surface. 

Sides  of  Road  to  be  Rolled. — The  sides  of  the  road  between  the 
gutters  and  the  metal  should  be  carefully  graded  and  rolled  to 
ultimate  resistance  and  a  true  surface  with  a  5 -ton  roller. 

The  cost  of  macadam  roads  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York,  by 
contract,  to  prepare  the  surface,  provide  good  trap  rock,  spread  and 
roll  the  same  ready  for  use,  is  about : 

50  cents  per  square  yard  for  6  inches  of  metal. 
65          "  "         "         "       8 

80          "  "         "         "      10 


400  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

Foundation  for  Telford  Road. — The  foundation  and  broken 
stone  will  seldom  be  required  to  be  thicker  than  12  inches,  and 
unless  the  width  to  be  metaled  is  more  than  16  feet,  it  should  be  of 
uniform  thickness  across  the  section.  When  the  width  is  over  16 
feet,  the  thickness  at  the  sides  may  be  reduced  to  10  inches. 

Foundation  Stone,  Size. — The  foundation  stones  for  a  1 2-inch 
pavement  should  be  7  inches  deep,  not  over  4  inches  wide  on  top, 
and  from  8  to  12  inches  long,  and  fairly  uniform  and  regular.  They 
should  be  of  the  hardest  and  toughest  stone  available,  preferably 
trap  rock,  and  laid  with  the  joints  widest  on  top,  in  parallel  courses, 
breaking  joints  by  at  least  i  inch  across  the  road.  After  being  set, 
they  should  be  wedged  firmly  by  inserting  and  driving  down  with  a 
bar,  spalls  of  the  same  stone,  in  every  possible  place,  until  the  whole 
foundation  is  solid  and  firm.  All  irregularities  and  projections 
above  the  7-inch  line  should  then  be  broken  off  carefully  with  a 
hammer,  so  done  as  not  to  loosen  the  foundations.  All  the  rest  of 
the  joints  not  then  filled  with  spalls,  should  be  filled  with  spalls  and 
chips  pounded  in  with  a  hammer,  so  that  the  top  is  a  regular  but 
not  too  smooth  surface. 

An  8-inch  pavement  should  have  a  5-inch  foundation.  The 
bottom  course  of  stone  should  be  broken  to  pass  a  2-inch  ring,  and 
the  top  a  i-inch  ring.  The  binding  and  rolling  should  be  the  same 
as  above  described.  In  the  vicinity  of  New  York  the  cost  of  a 
Telford  macadam  road  12  inches  thick  is  about  $i. TO  per  square 
yard  ;  10  inches  thick  is  about  $i  per  square  yard  ;  8  inches  thick 
is  about  90  cents  per  square  yard. 

Six-inch  Roads. — We  are  prepared  to  say  that  success  is  entirely 
possible  with  6-inch  macadam  roads,  properly  made  and  main- 
tained. 

Such  roads  can  be  built  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York  for  from 
$5,000  to  $6,000  a  mile,  with  a  metaled  roadway  16  feet  wide,  and 
when  skillfully  made,  and  thoroughly  maintained,  they  answer  all 
the  purposes  of  a  more  expensive  road;  if  neglected,  however,  they 
will  soon  go  to  pieces. 

Essentials  for  Success. — The  following  are  essential  to  success 
with  6-inch  roads: 

(1)  Good  stone,  preferably  trap  rock,  and  screenings  or  gravel 
as  a  binder. 

(2)  A  steam  roller  of  about  ten  tons  weight. 

(3)  The  services  of   a  man  who  knows  how  to  make  such  a 
road. 

(4)  Constant  and  intelligent  treatment  in   maintenance,   par- 
ticularly during  critical  periods. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  4OI 

Proper  maintenance  includes: 

(1)  The  removal  of  the  wear  of  the  road,  and  its  prompt  replace- 
ment by  new  material. 

(2)  The  immediate  repair  of  ruts,  holes  and  washouts. 

(3)  The  keeping  clear  of  the  gutters  and  culverts. 

(4)  To  these  should  be  added  additional  care  during  critical 
periods,  when  the  frost  is  leaving  the  ground,  and  during  prolonged 
seasons  of  wetness  or  drought. 

General  Repairs. — In  the  fall  of  the  year,  the  road  should  be 
put  in  first-class  shape,  to  better  resist  the  damaging  effect  of  frost 
during  the  coming  winter. 

More  general  repairs,  such  as  an  entire  resurfacing,  will  be 
necessary  periodically,  according  to  the  thoroughness  of  the  con- 
struction and  the  amount  of  traffic. 


FRANK  B.  SANBORN  ("  ROY  "),  BROOKLINE,  MASS. 

(Abstract.) 

Records. — The  expenses  incurred  by  the  details  of  carefully 
located  side-lines  will  not  usually  equal  the  cost  of  one  of  the  many 
law-suits  that  the  town  will  be  obliged  to  withstand  on  account  of 
indefiniteness  of  street  lines. 

Drains. — In  an  address  before  Maine  Board  of  Agriculture, 
C.  B.  Stetson  said:  "It  is  clear  that  neither  our  farmers  nor  our 
road  makers  half  appreciate  the  wonderful  results  which  can  be 
secured  by  thorough  drainage  of  fields  and  highways — by  keeping 
them,  so  far  as  water  is  concerned,  in  fit  condition  for  perpetual 
service." 

For  the  drainage  of  ordinary  highways  the  writer  recommends 
tile  drains  laid  at  least  three  feet  deep  in  trenches  20  inches  wide. 
After  the  tiles  have  been  laid  and  the  joints  well  protected  with 
tarred  paper  or  cheese-cloth  the  trench  should  be  filled  with  small 
stones  not  more  than  three  inches  in  diameter — the  stones  laying 
near  the  pipe  should  be  carefully  placed  so  as  to  protect  it  from  the 
superimposed  weight.  Large  stones  which  nearly  fill  the  trench 
exert  simply  a  downward  thrust  and  should  not  be  used.  In  ordi- 
nary soil  a  trench  can  be  dug,  the  tiles  laid  and  covered  with  stone, 
as  described  above,  for  25  to  50  cents  per  linear  foot.  The  writer 
has  had  charge  of  the  construction  of  two  roads  the  past  year  which 
were  drained  by  4,  6  and  8-inch  tiles  for  35  cents  per  linear  foot. 
Henry  F.  French  says  in  his  book  on  Farm  Drainage:  ".  .  . 


402  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

drainage  with  tiles  will  generally  cost  less  than  one-half  the  expense 
of  drainage  with  stone  drains  and  be  far  more  satisfactory  in  the 
end." 

Road-bed. — It  is  preferable  to  make  the  width  of  drive-way 
proper  (which  includes  the  gutters)  some  multiple  of  8  feet,  which 
is  about  the  width  necessary  for  each  team. 

Requisites. — It  is  better  to  bring  good  material,  if  necessary, 
from  a  distance  rather  than  make  use  of  poor  material  for  road 
making. 

Conclusion. — Finally,  engineers  of  vast  experience  have  con- 
cluded, that:  A  perfectly  good  road  should  have  a  firm  and  unyield- 
ing foundation,  good  drainage,  a  hard  and  compact  surface,  free 
from  all  ruts,  hollows  or  depressions.  The  surface  neither  too  flat 
to  allow  water  to  stand,  nor  too  convex  to  be  inconvenient  to  the 
traffic;  and  free  from  loose  stones. 


A.  T.  BYRNE,  C.  E.  ("  ZAMORA  "),  BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 

(Abstract.} 

It  is  advisable  for  road  constructors  to  abandon  precedents  and 
build  roads  which  will  best  suit  the  requirements  of  the  traffic. 

The  subject  of  the  proper  construction  and  maintenance  of 
roads  has  never  been  considered  by  the  people  in  more  than  a  lim- 
ited and  superficial  way.  A  lack  of  public  appreciation  of  their  true 
value,  a  mistaken  idea  of  economy,  and,  in  most  States,  the  exist- 
ence of  laws  that  make  and  permit  bad  work,  has  made  their  condi- 
tion a  conspicuous  blot  upon  the  page  of  our  general  progress  as  a 
nation. 

The  system  of  requiring  personal  service  upon  our  country 
roads  by  our  rural  population  is  unsound  in  principle,  unjust  in  its 
operation,  wasteful  in  its  practice,  and  unsatisfactory  in  its  results, 

Road  Laws. — New  legislation  is  needed,  but  no  legislation  can 
produce  good  roads  until  the  people  are  willing  to  pay  for  them. 

New  Laws. — First,  the  burden  of  the  leading  lines  of  commu- 
nication should  be  borne  by  the  whole  community.  Second,  the 
employment  of  skilled  engineers  to  superintend  the  road  making 
and  repairs.  Third,  the  abolishment  of  personal  labor,  and  the 
levying,  instead,  of  a  money  tax.  The  money  tax  will  be  found  to 
be  not  only  more  equitable  than  the  labor  system,  but  even  less  bur- 
densome. None  of  it  will  be  wasted,  and  those  who  have  the  skill 
and  strength  for  road-work  will  receive  back  in  wages  more  than 
their  share  of  it. 


ROAD  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE.          403 

Roads  and  Morality. — Bad  roads  are  the  cause  of  more  pro- 
fanity and  ill-nature  than  any  other  trial  to  which  human  nature 
is  subjected. 

Effect  of  Bad  Roads. — Nothing  has  led  farmers'  children  to  a 
dislike  of  the  country,  and  a  desire  for  city  life,  more  than  the 
monotony  of  the  rural  districts  in  the  winter  months,  produced  by 
the  lack  of  social  intercourse,  for  the  want  of  good  roads. 

Advantages  of  Good  Roads. — By  the  improvement  of  our  roads 
every  branch  of  our  agricultural,  commercial  and  manufacturing 
industries  would  be  materially  benefited.  Every  article  brought  to 
market  would  be  diminished  in  price;  and  the  number  of  horses 
would  be  so  much  reduced  that  by  these  and  other  retrenchments 
many  millions  of  dollars  would  be  annually  saved  to  the  public. 

All  the  produce  and  industry  which  by  these  improvements 
finds  for  the  first  time  a  market,  is,  as  it  were,  a  new  creation. 

Cost  of  Roads. — The  road  which  is  truly  cheapest  is  not  the  one 
which  has  cost  the  least  money,  but  the  one  which  makes  the  most 
profitable  returns  in  proportion  to  the  amount  which  has  been 
expended  upon  it. 

Maintenance  of  Natural  Soil  Roads. — In  the  maintenance  of 
sand  roads  the  aim  should  be  to  have  the  roadway  as  narrow  as 
possible,  so  as  to  have  all  the  vehicles  run  in  the  same  track ;  to 
have  an  abundant  growth  of  vegetation  on  each  side  of  the  rut,  for 
by  these  means  the  sheering  of  the  sands  is  in  a  great  measure 
avoided.  Ditching  beyond  a  slight  depth  to  carry  away  the  water 
is  not  desirable,  for  it  tends  to  hasten  the  drying  of  the  sands,  which 
is  to  be  avoided. 

Where  possible,  the  roads  should  be  overhung  with  trees,  the 
leaves  and  twigs  of  which,  catching  in  the  roadways,  will  still  further 
serve  to  diminish  the  effect  of  the  wheels  in  moving  the  sands  about. 
If  clay  can  be  obtained  within  a  moderate  distance,  a  coating  six 
inches  thick  will  be  found  a  most  effective  and  economical  improve- 
ment ;  four  inches  of  loose  straw  will,  in  a  few  days'  travel,  grind 
into  the  sand  and  become  as  hard  as  a  dry  clay  road. 

Clay  roads  can  only  be  made  into  satisfactory  ways  by  means  of 
effective  drainage,  so  contrived  that  the  least  possible  amount  of 
water  will  remain  in  the  material.  Deep  side-ditches  are  absolutely 
necessary.  Cross  and  sub-drains  may  be  employed  to  great  advan- 
tage. The  narrower  the  roadway  the  more  effective  will  be  the 
drainage.  If  sand  can  be  obtained  within  a  moderate  distance,  a 
coating  three  inches  thick  will  form  a  very  beneficial  improvement. 
Trees  should  be  removed  from  the  borders  of  the  road,  so  as  to 
expose  its  surface  to  the  drying  effects  of  the  sun  and  wind. 
Neither  sods  nor  turf  should  be  used  to  fill  holes  or  ruts,  for  though 


404  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

at  first  deceptively  tough,  they  soon  decay  and  form  the  softest  mud; 
neither  should  the  other  extreme  be  reached,  by  filling  up  the  ruts 
with  stones.  They  will  not  wear  uniformly  with  the  rest  of  the  road, 
but  will  produce  hard  ridges. 

Coal-slack,  ashes  and  cinders,  judiciously  applied,  make  fair 
roadways;  yet  in  many  parts  of  the  coal  regions  the  people  are  pull- 
ing through  the  mud  in  plain  sight  of  heaps  of  that  material  suffi- 
cient to  cover  all  the  roads  in  their  neighborhood,  and  are  heard  to 
lament  the  bad  condition  of  the  roads. 

Stone. — The  qualities  required  in  a  good  road  stone  are  hard- 
ness, or  that  disposition  of  a  solid  which  renders  it  difficult  to  dis- 
place its  parts  among  themselves,  toughness,  or  that  quality  by 
which  it  will  endure  light  but  rapid  blows  without  breaking. 

Chemical  Qualities. — The  porosity  or  water-absorbing  capacity 
is  of  considerable  importance.  Of  two  rocks  which  are  to  be 
exposed  to  frost,  the  one  most  absorbent  of  water  will  be  the  least 
durable. 

For  light  traffic  the  carboniferous  and  transition  lime-stones  are 
sufficiently  durable,  make  the  smoothest  and  most  pleasant  roads, 
and  possess  the  quality  of  forming  a  mortar-like  detritus  which 
binds  the  stones  together,  and  enables  it  to  wear  better  than  a 
harder  material  that  does  not  bind. 

For  heavy  traffic  the  lime-stones  are  too  weak,  the  sand-stones 
too  soft,  the  green  stones  too  variable,  the  gneiss,  quartz,  and 
silicious  rocks,  though  hard,  are  too  brittle  and  deficient  in  tough- 
ness. The  slates  are  inadmissible,  the  quartzose,  feldspathic  and 
micaceous  granites  are  bad,  the  quartzose  is  too  brittle,  the  felds- 
pathic too  easily  decomposed,  and  the  micaceous  too  easil)  lami- 
nated. The  sienitic  granites,  which  contain  hornblendes  in  place  of 
feldspar,  are  good,  and  better  in  proportion  to  their  darkness  of 
color,  the  traps  and  basalts  are  the  best,  though  most  difficult  to 
break  up.  The  softer  rock  may  be  used  for  the  lower  course  in  a 
pavement. 

Rolling. — The  amount  of  rolling,  with  a  heavy  roller,  should  be 
about  ten  hours  for  each  1,000  square  yards  of  surface  for  each  layer 
of  stone,  but  it  must  be  continued  until  all  motion  of  the  stones  has 
ceased.  After  several  passages  of  the  roller,  any  hollows  which 
appear  must  be  filled  up  with  small  material  and  the  rolling  continued. 
Each  course  is  to  be  spread  and  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

Watering  is  desirable  where  it  can  be  done  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  rolling.  It  is  done  best  by  sprinkling.  Excessive 
watering  is  to  be  avoided,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages,  as  it  tends 
to  soften  the  foundation. 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  405 

Binding. — Binding  should  be  spread  dry  and  uniformly  in 
small  quantities  over  the  surface,  and  rolled  into  the  interstices  with 
the  aid  of  watering  and  sweeping.  By  using  binding  materials  in 
large  quantities  the  amount  of  rolling  is  lessened,  but  at  the  expense 
of  durability. 

Wear  and  Maintenance. — When  the  wear  on  a  road  is  confined 
to  the  crushing  and  grinding  at  the  surface,  it  is  the  least  possible, 
but  when  a  road  is  weak  from  insufficient  thickness  or  solidity  on  a 
yielding  foundation,  bending  and  cross-breaking  of  the  covering 
take  place  under  passing  loads,  in  addition  to  surface  wear,  and  the 
effects  are  aggravated  by  the  softening  action  of  water  finding  its 
way  into  the  road-bed  through  cracks  formed  in  the  surface,  and  by 
the  disintegrating  action  of  frost.  Wear  is  measured  by  the  loss  of 
thickness  in  the  covering.  It  is  seldom  found  to  exceed  one  inch 
per  year  on  the  most  frequented  roads. 

Effect  of  Wheels. — Legislation  is  needed  for  regulating  the 
width  of  wheel  tires.  With  the  same  burden,  a  two-wheeled  cart 
does  far  more  damage  than  one  of  four  wheels.  Wheels  with  2\- 
inch  tires  cause  double  the  wear  on  a  road  than  those  do  which 
have  4^-inch  tires.  No  greater  width  is  useful,  as  a  wider  tire  does 
not  bear  evenly.  The  following  proportions  have  been  advised: 


Load  on  each  wheel. 

Vehicle   without 
Springs. 

With  Springs. 

/4  to 

3/  of  a  ton  .  . 

6  inches. 

i  inch 

X  to 

i  ton 

4.          " 

3«« 

i  to  i 

j^  tons 

6 

Wheels  of  large  diameter  do  less  damage  than  small  ones,  and 
cause  less  draught  for  the  horses. 


AN    ESSAY    ON     ROAD     MAKING     AND     MAINTENANCE     IN     LESS    THAN 

SIXTY    WORDS. 
A.    L.    PHILLIPS  ("TO    THE    POINT"),    PENCOYD,    PA. 

First. — No  unnecessary  roads. 

Second. — A  competent  engineer  in  charge  of  survey,  location, 
construction  and  maintenance. 

Third. — Proper  macadamized  roadway  from  eight  to  four 
inches  depth  as  needed,  if  cost  of  stone  not  prohibitory. 

Fourth. — Use  of  roller  in  construction. 

Fifth.— Complete  drainage,  sub  and  surface. 

Sixth. — Constant,  intelligent  watching  and  repairing  by  per- 
manent, responsible  employees. 


406  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

A    PLEA    FOR    AESTHETIC    CONSIDERATIONS   IN    ROAD    BUILDING. 

BOSTON,  April  7,  1890. 
To  the  Editor  of  THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD: 

SIR:  In  your  issue  of  March  29,  you  publish  the  first  part  of 
the  First  Prize  Essay  on  Roadmaking  in  which  I  was  greatly  struck 
by  two  rules  that  are  laid  down,  which,  from  an  artistic  standpoint, 
would  be  more  honored  in  the  breach  than  in  the  observance.  I 
call  attention  to  them  because  they  are  an  epitome  of  the  standpoint  of 
modern  engineers  with  regard  to  aesthetic  considerations.  The  two 
rules  are:  (In  making  a  road)  "make  the  line  as  nearly  straight  as 
practicable,  and  when  changes  of  line  occur  connect  them  by  regu- 
lar curves  of  proper  radius.  When  the  line  is  intended  to  be  straight 
make  it  so  absolutely."  These  rules  are,  I  am  aware,  considered 
obligatory  by  most  engineers,  for  which  reason  an  engineer  may,  in 
most  cases,  be  depended  upon  pretty  certainly  to  do  a  good  deal 
toward  spoiling  the  beauty  of  any  landscape  through  which  he  may 
be  called  upon  to  make  a  road,  with  his  "  absolutely  straight  lines  " 
and  "regular  curves  of  proper  radius."  It  seems  a  pity  that  a  few 
elementary  ideas  as  to  what  constitutes  beauty  might  not  be  instilled 
as  part  of  the  training  of  a  profession  that  has  in  its  hands  the 
making  or  marring  of  so  much  natural  beauty.  But  probably  to 
most  engineers  the  idea  of  considering  the  possible  effect  of  the 
line  of  a  road  on  the  beauty  of  the  landscape,  and  planning  the  road 
with  regard  to  this  consideration  among  others,  seems  ridiculous  and 
quixotic.  I  fear  that  the  training  of  most  engineers  tends  to  blunt 
and  deaden  such  ideas  of  beauty  as  they  may  have  by  nature,  and 
leads  them  to  regard  beauty  as  a  thing  unworthy  of  serious  consid- 
eration. And  so  it  comes  about  that  fine  trees  of  a  century's  growth 
are  ruthlessly  cut  down  and  hillsides  marred  by  deep  and  ugly  cut- 
tings, when  a  slight  bend  in  the  road  would  not  only  preserve  the 
trees  but  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  road;  or  when  by  following  the 
contour  of  the  hill,  with  its  natural  and  irregular  curve,  the  road 
would  be  given  some  beauty  and  expense  could  often  be  saved. 
Among  the  rules  laid  down  by  the  prize  essayist  I  do  not  find  any 
which  speaks  of  the  necessity  of  considering  the  natural  conditions 
which  ought  to  be  among  the  determining  elements  of  a  line  of  road, 
when  yet  the  capability  to  seize  upon  and  make  the  most  of  these 
natural  conditions  ought  to  be  one  point  of  distinction  between  a 
good  and  an  inferior  engineer. 

The  aesthetic  elements  in  the  problem  of  making  a  road  are  not 
necessarily  at  variance  with  practical  considerations.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  will  often  be  found  that  a  consideration  of  these  aesthetic 
elements  will  lead  to  practical  benefits  and  economics.  To  consider 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  407 

these  aesthetic  questions,  which  are  involved  in  a  large  proportion  of 
engineering  undertakings,  would  doubtless  add  to  the  engineer's 
difficulties.  He  would  be  less  dependent  on  mere  rule.  It  would 
give  in  each  case  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  judgment  and  skill 
in  the  harmonizing  of  sometimes  apparently  contradictory  require- 
ments; but  it  would  add  greatly  to  the  interest  and  individuality 
and  value  of  his  work. 

I  appeal  to  the  engineers  themselves  to  consider  this  question 
for  a  moment,  not  as  engineers,  but  as  individuals  who  may  be 
affected  by  engineering  operations,  to  free  themselves  for  the  mo- 
ment from  the  strait-jacket  of  rules  of  their  engineer's  training  and 
to  consider  how  much  beauty  might  be  preserved,  nay,  might  be 
added  to  our  landscape,  especially  in  suburban  communities,  by  even 
the  slightest  consideration  or  forethought  for  beauty,  for  its  own 
sake,  and  this  often  without  any  added  expense  or  the  sacrifice  of 
any  reasonable  utilitarian  requirement. 

It  is  the  wanton  disregard  of  beauty  without  any  corresponding 
gain  against  which  I  protest. 

When  our  civilization  reaches  a  point  at  which  it  is  willing  to 
sacrifice  some  utilitarian  and  material  considerations  for  the  sake  of 
beauty  it  will  mark  a  distinct  advance.  At  present  this  is  hardly 
to  be  expected.  H.  LANG  FORD  WARREN. 


COMMENTS  BY  THE  COMMITTEE  OF  AWARD. 

The  following  comments  are  made  by  the  Committee  of  Award, 
upon  various  propositions  made  in  the  several  essays : 

Traction. — Refinements  as  to  traction  are  of  little  practical  value. 
In  every  case  it  is  desirable  to  fix  upon  a  maximum  grade.  This 
being  done,  no  exceptions  should  be  allowed  other  than  for  very 
short  distances.  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  power  of  horses,  and  as 
to  the  traction  resistance  of  various  road  surfaces. 

Alternations  in  Grade. — It  will  not  do  to  say  that  these  must  not 
be  allowed.  The  "lay  of  the  land"  and  other  circumstances  will 
often  compel  their  adoption;  the  only  alternatives  often  being  either 
a  great  increase  in  expense,  or  great  detriment  to  adjacent  property. 
In  connection  with  the  subject  of  grades  and  alignment,  we  com- 
mend the  communication  of  H.  Langford  Warren,  printed  above. 

The  "Angle  of  Repose  of  Vehicles" — Much  stress  has  been  laid 
on  the  requirement  that  descending  grades  shall  not  exceed  this. 
We  believe  the  refinement  an  impossible  one.  What  will  be  true  for 


408  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

one  vehicle  with  a  certain  width  of  tire,  size  of  wheels  and  axles, 
state  of  lubrication  and  amount  of  load  carried  will  be  different  for 
another  vehicle,  varying  essentially  in  these  particulars. 

Again,  what  will  be  true  for  a  given  vehicle  with  the  road  dry 
and  in  perfect  condition,  may  not  be  true  when  wet,  frosty,  etc. 

These  latter  variations  will  be  less  the  harder  and  more  perfect 
the  road  surface. 

Width  of  Road-Bed. — We  think  the  width  of  road  metal  or  other 
covering  should  not  be  less  than  16  feet,  except  where  all  traffic  is 
very  slow,  where  12  feet  may  answer.  This  is  a  matter  for  the  judg- 
ment of  the  engineer. 

Cost  of  Handling  Earth. — No  fixed  rules  can  be  given  as  to 
this,  as  it  depends  so  largely  upon  location,  cost  and  kind  of  labor 
and  teams,  and  thorough  management.  The  remarks  on  the  cost  of 
handling  earth,  it  should  be  remembered,  are  based  on  wages  paid 
"before  the  war,"  when  75  cents  a  day  was  nearer  an  average  than 
one  dollar.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  in  this  connection  no  men- 
tion was  made  of  the  cost  of  scraper  work,  and  that  no  essayist 
described  the  working  of  a  ''road  machine,"  an  extremely  valuable 
implement  in  forming  and  maintaining  earth  roads. 

Weight  of  Roller. — It  is  obvious  that  no  road  roller  can  be  made 
heavy  enough  to  give  the  same  pressure  per  inch  as  the  heaviest 
loaded  wheel,  but  we  think  the  use  of  a  10  to  15  ton  roller  advisable 
where  it  can  be  had. 

Binding  Material. — The  question  of  the  amount  of  binding  to 
be  used  is  largely  dependent  on  the  amount  of  rolling  done,  and  the 
subsequent  care  of  the  roads.  It  is  admitted  that  a  considerable 
saving  can  be  made  by  using  more  binding  and  less  rolling,  and 
where  money  must  be  made  to  go  as  far  as  possible  this  expedient  is 
justifiable. 

We  think,  however,  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  heavy  rolling 
with  a  moderate  amount  of  binding,  preferably  screenings,  gives  a 
more  durable  and  cleaner  surface  under  heavy  traffic. 

Thickness  of  Pavement. — This  is  to  be  decided  by  a  due  consid- 
eration of  all  the  circumstances  in  each  particular  case,  and  should 
be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  engineer.  It  is  rarely  the  case  that 
every  part  even  of  the  same  road  needs  the  same  treatment.  Reten- 
tiveness  of  the  soil,  gradients,  thoroughness  of  drainage  possible, 
climate,  character  and  extent  of  traffic,  and  amount  of  money  avail- 
able, all  have  to  be  considered,  and  we  deem  it  unwise  to  try  to  lay 
down  hard-and-fast  rules  on  this  all-important  matter. 

Asphaltic  Pavements. — The  remarks  of  "  Cesa  "  on  asphalt  pave- 
ments are  unfortunate,  as  there  is  an  entire  lack  of  distinction 
between  the  various  kinds  of  pavements  going  under  this  name,  and 


ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE.  409 

the  essayist,  by  implication,  condemns  pavements  that  are  satisfac- 
tory, on  purely  theoretical  grounds. 

There  is  one  direct  error  in  statement,  also,  by  this  writer,  that 
attention  should  be  called  to.  He  states  that  in  England  roads  are 
under  national  supervision.  The  English  highwavs  are  under 
supervision  that  varies  in  extent  from  the  bounds  of  a  single  parish 
to  that  of  a  county,  and  while  the  great  mass  of  American  roads  are 
bad  enough,  it  is  thought  that  no  roads  have  been  anywhere 
built  that  were  better  than  those  built  by  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral Park  Engineers  in  and  about  the  Park,  and  we  doubt  if  any 
European  country  can  show  better  surfaced  country  roads  than 
many  in  New  Jersey,  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 

Berms  and  Ditches. — The  arrangement  of  berms  and  ditches  in 
the  second  prize  essay  is  questionable,  except  on  sandy  soils. 

Foundation  of  Telford  Roads. — As  there  seems  to  be  some  dis- 
crepancy of  statement  in  the  several  papers  as  to  the  foundation 
blocks  in  Telford  pavement,  we  desire  to  state  that  in  no  case  must 
such  stone  lie  on  the  flat  or  broad  side  of  the  stone.  The  broadest 
edge  should  be  down,  the  stone  set  lengthwise  across  the  street, 
breaking  joints  in  the  several  rows.  The  stones  in  any  one  row 
should  be  approximately  of  the  same  thickness.  Very  thick  stones 
are  bad  for  durability.  Every  needless  refinement  in  road-making 
costs  money,  and  while  engineers  should  exact  close  attention  to 
details  upon  which  durability  depends,  it  is  not  wise  to  expend  the 
minute  care  upon  them  that  might  be  bestowed  upon  a  city  street. 

Repairs. — Where  money  is  scarce,  repairs  may  be  made  more 
cheaply  and  so  as  to  answer  a  good  purpose  by  the  use  of  road 
metal,  with  enough  clay  or  loam  with  it  to  make  it  compact  quickly. 
One  of  the  greatest  enemies  of  Macadam  roads  is  the  wind,  and  to 
prevent  the  effects  of  winds  the  rolling  and  repairing  of  the  surface 
as  soon  as  is  practicable  in  the  spring,  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
means. 

Water,  sand,  clay,  or  loam  should  be  promptly  used  if  a  road 
begins  to  break  up  in  the  spring  winds. 

In  making  repairs,  we  doubt  whether  it  is  advisable  (in  the  case 
of  trap  macadam  at  least)  to  break  up  the  surface  with  spikes  or 
with  picks,  where  water  for  softening  the  road  is  available. 

The  circumstances  under  which  it  is  advisable  to  use  material 
from  ditches,  a  practice  usually  condemned,  are  not  fully  brought 
out.  Washed  coarse  sand  and  gravel  from  side  ditches  may  make  a 
valuable  addition  to  the  road-bed,  but  the  mud  and  fine  sand  washed 
from  this  will  not  add  to  the  wear  of  the  road-bed. 

Stone  Breakers. — Where  suitable  stone  is  available  for  road- 
making,  a  town  owning  a  stone-breaker  is  more  apt  to  have  a  suffi- 


410  ROAD    CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE. 

ciency  of  road  metal  than  where  a  vote  has  to  be  passed  for  the 
expenditure  of  a  definite  sum  of  money  at  intermittent  times  ;  but  if 
the  demagogue  could  be  eliminated  from  the  town  meeting,  it  would 
sometimes  be  the  case  that  the  broken  stone  could  be  purchased 
more  cheaply  from  a  large  establishment  making  the  breaking  of 
stone  a  business. 

County  and  Assistant  Engineers. — We  consider  the  remarks  on 
this  subject  in  the  second  prize  essay  ill-advised.  The  question  of 
time  has  less  to  do  with  the  capabilities  of  a  man  for  such  work  than 
natural  ability  and  habits  of  reasoning  observation. 

No  engineer  should  be  required  to  waste  his  employer's  time 
by  walking  five  miles.  The  better  arrangement  is  to  furnish  at  all 
times  such  horses  and  conveyance  as  may  be  required. 

F.  COLLINGWOOD. 

EDWARD  P.  NORTH. 
JAMES  OWEN. 


THE  ENGINEERING  &  BUILDING  RECORD, 

and 

THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER. 
(Established  in  1877.) 

For  the 
Engineer,  Architect,  Contractor,  Mechanic 

and   Municipal  Officer. 
HENRY  C.  MEYER,  EDITOR  <t  PROPRIETOR. 

Gives  prominence  to 
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:F  you  are  charged  with  the  construction  of  a  large  Building  of  any 
kind,  a  Public  Institution,  a  Bridge,  a  Water- Works,  Sewerage,  Gas 
or  Electric-lighting  system,  Pavements,  or  require  any  work  done, 
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suggests  to  them  possible  business. 

If  any  cause  induces  the  restriction  of  competition  to  home 
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municipalities  which  advertise  such  matters  in  local  papers  only. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  your  desire  to  obtain  the  best  possible 
results  by  reaching  parties  in  every  part  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  whose  special  business  it  is  to  do  any  form  of  contracting 
work,  and  who  are  familiar  with  most  modern  methods,  you  will 
follow  the  course  first  suggested  above.  While  the  original  outlay 
to  do  so  is  a  mere  trifle,  the  experience  of  others  shows  that  the 
return  in  suggestions,  advice,  first-class  workmanship,  etc.,  as  a 
result  of  large  facilities  and  special  adaptability — not  to  speak  of 
possible  advantages  in  prices  obtained — will  prove  a  handsome 
investment.  The  various  departments  of  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment, Municipal  Authorities,  Water- Works,  Building  Committees, 
and  others  intrusted  with  Public  Work,  thus  use  our  columns  each 
week. 

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THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING   RECORD, 

Prior  to  1887,  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER. 

DEVOTED    TO 

Engineering,  Architecture,  Construction  and  Sanitation. 


MUNICIPAL    ENGINEERING   A   PROMINENT  FEATURE. 


Published    Saturdays    at    277     Pearl     Street,     New  Yorlc. 


SOLD    BY    ALL   NEWSDEALERS. 

$4  Per  Year.  ice.  Per  Copy, 


The  Worthington 
High  Duty  Pumping  Engine 


HORIZONTAL     VERTICAL      BEAM 
REGULAR  COMPOUND 

OR 

TRIPLE  EXPANSION 

Lowest  First  Cost  and  Maintenance. 

Highest  Economy  and  Efficiency. 

Total  Daily  Capacity  of  Worthington  Pumping  Engines  now 
in  use  for  Water  Works  Service  over  2,000,000,000  Gallons 


An  Illustrated  Pamphlet  descriptive  of  Worthington  Pumping  Engines  will  be  furnished 

on  application  to 

HENRY  R.  WORTHINGTON 

Nos.   86  &  88  Liberty  St. 

No.    145   Broadway 

NEW  YORK 


A  COLLECTION  OF  DIAGRAMS 

Representing  the  General  Plan  of 

Twenty-Six  Different  Water-Works, 

Contributed  by  Members  of  the 

NEW    ENGLAND    WATER-WORKS    ASSOCIATION, 

And  Compiled  by  a  Committee. 
1887. 


INTRODUCTION. 

OFFICE  OF  SECRETARY, 

NEW  BEDFORD,  MASS.,  November  i,  1887. 

'T'HIh  collection  of  diagrams  is  the  result  of  the  persistent   efforts   of 

1       Messrs.  William  B.   Sherman,  of   Providence,    R.  I  ,   and  Walter  H. 

Richards,  of  New  London,  Conn.,  who,  as  a  Committee  on  Exchange 

of  Sketches,  have  secured  these  drawings  from  members  of  the  Association. 

The  following  extract  from  a  report  presented  by  these  gentlemen  at  the 

Manchester,  N.  H.,  meeting  in  June,  1887,  will  explain  in  part  the  origin 

of  the  collection  : 

*'  In  answer  to  circular  letters  sent  out  to  members,  there  were  received 
rough  sketches  of  general  plans  of  twenty-three  water- works  represented  in 
the  Association.  Having  this  data  on  hand,  though  crude  in  many  particu- 
lars, it  was  decided  to  put  the  same  into  available  shape  for  the  benefit  of 
the  members.  This  has  been  accomplished  by  the  Committee  without  cost 
to  the  Association.  From  these  rough  sketches — revised,  reduced  to  uniform 
size  of  10  by  15  inches— a  set  of  tracings  has  been  made,  and  a  sample  folio 
of  blue  prints  prepared.  This  folio  and  set  of  tracings  are  herewith  presented 
as  forming  the  main  part  of  this  report." 

Since  the  Manchester  meeting  three  more  subjects  have  been  received 
and  subscriptions  for  sets  of  reproductions  from  the  tracings  have  been 
called  for.  The  ready  response  to  the  call  is  evidence  of  the  value  of  the 
Committee's  work,  and  arrangements  were  made  with  The  Engineering  dr9 
Building  Record  for  publication  in  this  present  form. 

R.  C.  P.  COGGESHALL, 

Secretary,  New  England  Water- Works  Association. 
Published  by  THE  ENGIH  BERING  &  BUILDING  RECORU. 


I. — Boston,  Mass. 
H. — Burlington,  Vt. 
III. — Cambridge,  Mass. 
IV.— Fall  River,  Mass. 
V.— Fitchburg,  Mass. 
VI.— Knoxville,  Tenn. 
VII. — Lawrence,  Mass. 
VIII.— Manchester,  N.  H. 
IX.— Meriden,  Conn. 
X. — Middletown,  Conn. 
XL— Milford,  Mass. 
XII.— Nantucket,  Mass. 
XIII.— Natick,  Mass. 

Address,  BOOK  DEPARTMENT, 

THE  ENGINEERING  &  BUILDING  RECORD, 
P.  0.60x3037.  No.  277  Pesrl  Street,  New  York. 


INDEX. 

PLATE      XIV.-New  Bedford.  Mass. 

XV.  —  New  London,  Conn. 

5S. 

XVI.  -New  Orleans,  La. 

S. 

XVII.—  Pawtucket,  R.  I. 

>. 

XVIII.—  Plymouth,  Mass. 

1. 

XIX.—  Quincy,  Mass. 

XX.—  Spencer,  Mass. 

H. 

XXL—  Springfield,  Mass. 
XXII.  —  Taunton,  Mass. 

nn. 

XXIII.—  Waterbury,  Conn. 

XXIV.—  Wilmington,  N.  C. 

5S. 

XXV.—  Woonsocket,  R.  I. 

XXVI.—  Worcester,  Mass. 

Some  Details  of  Water-  Works 
Construction. 

By  W.  R.  BILLINGS,  Superintendent  of  Water-Works  at  Taunton,  Mass. 
WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS  FROM  SKETCHES  BY  THE  AUTHOR. 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE. 

Some  questions  addressed  to  the  Editor  of  The  Engineering  and 
Building  Record  and  The  Sanitary  Engineer  by  persons  in  the  employ 
of  new  water-works  indicated  that  a  short  series  of  practical  articles  on 
the  Details  of  Constructing  a  Water- Works  Plant  would  be  of  value  ; 
and,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Editor,  the  preparation  of  these  papers 
was  undertaken  for  the  columns  of  that  journal.  The  task  has  been  an 
easy  and  agreeable  one,  and  now,  in  a  more  convenient  form  than  is 
afforded  by  the  columns  of  the  paper,  these  notes  of  actual  experience 
are  offered  to  the  water-works  fraternity,  with  the  belief  that  they  may 
be  of  assistance  to  beginners  and  of  some  interest  to  all. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I.— MAIN  PIPES—  CHAPTER  IV.  —  PIPE-LAYING    AND 

Materials—  Cast-iron—  Cement-Lined  J  OINT-M  AKING- 

Wrought    Iron  -  Salt-Glazed   Clay—  Laying  Cement-Lined  Pipe— "  Mud  " 

Thickness  of  Sheet  Metal— Methods  of  Bell    and     Spigot  —  Yarn  —  Lead  — 

Lining— List   of   Tools— Tool-Box—  Jointers— Roll— Calking— Strength  of 

Derrick—  Calking   Tools—  Furnace—  Joints— Quantity  of  Lead. 
Transportation — Handling  Pipe — Cost 

of  Carting— Distributing  Pipe.  CHAPTER  V.— HYDRANTS,    GATES, 

CHAPTER  II.— FIELD  WORK—  AND  SPECIALS- 
Engineering  or   None — Pipe   Plans — 

Special   Pipe— Laying  out  a  Line—  CHAPTER  VI.— SERVICE  PIPES— 

Width  and  Depth  of  Trench— Time-  Definition  —  Materials  —  Lead     vs. 

Keeping  Book— Disposition  of  Dirt—  Wrought   Iron  — Tapping   Mains   for 

Tunneling— Sheet  Piling.  Services— Different  Joints- Compres- 

CHAPTER  III.—  TRENCHING    AND  sion  Union— Cup. 
PIPE-LAYING- 

Caving  -  Tunneling  -  Bell-Holes  -  ^^M™^  R  V  J  C  E'P  X  P  E  S 
Stony  Trenches— Feathers  and  Wedges 

—  Blasting  —  Rocks  and  Water  —  Wiped  Joints  and  Cup-Joints —  The 
Laying  Cast-iron  Pipe — Derrick  Gang  Lawrence  Air-Pump — Wire-drawn  Sol- 
— Handling  the  Derrick — Skids— Ob-  der — Weight  of  Lead  Service- Pipe  — 
structions  Left  in  Pipes — Laying  Pipe  Tapping  Wrought-Iron  Mains  —  Ser- 
in Quicksand — Cutting  Pipe.  vice-Boxes — Meter?. 

HANDSOMELY   BOUND    IN    CLOTH. 

Sent  (post-paid)  on  receipt  of  $2.00.  Address, 

BOOK  DEPARTMENT,        THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD. 


THE  HARRISBURG  PATENT 


IMPROVED 


DOUBLE  ENGINE  STEEL  STEAM 


ROAD  ROLLER. 


Unequaled  in  Economy,  Efficiency  and  Workmanship. 


MANUFACTURED  BY 


FOUNDRY  &  MACHINE  DEPARTMENT, 

HARRISBURG,  PA. 

BUILDERS  OF  THE 

IDE  AND    IDEAL    AUTOMATIC    ENGINES, 

BOTH    PLAIN    AND   COMPOUND. 

Also  Boilers  and  Tank  Work  of  all  Descriptions. 

CIRCULARS  ON   APPLICATION. 


WATER-WASTE  PREVENTION: 

Its  Importance  and  the  Evils  Due  to  its  Neglect. 

With  an  account  of  the  Methods  adopted  in  various  Cities  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

JBy  HENRY  C.  MEYER,  Editor  of         THE  ENGINEERING  &  BUILDING  RECORD. 
With  an  Appendix. 

EXTRACT  FROM  PREFACE. 

During  the  summer  of  1882  the  Editor  of  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER  carefully  investigated  the 
methods  employed  in  various  cities  in  Great  Britain  for  curtailing  the  waste  of  water  without  subjecting 
the  respective  communities  to  either  inconvenience  or  a  limited  allowance.  The  results  of  this  investiga- 
tion appeared  in  a  series  of  articles  entitled  "  New  York's  Water-Supply,"  the  purpose  being  to  present 
to  the  readers  of  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER  such  facts  as  would  stimulate  public  sentiment  in  support 
of  the  enforcement  of  measures  tending  to  prevent  the  excessive  waste  of  water  so  prevalent  in 
American  cities,  and  especially  the  city  of  New  York,  which  was  then  suffering  from  a  short  supply 
Numerous  requests  for  information,  together  with  the  recent  popular  agitation  in  connection  with  a 
proposition  to  increase  the  powers  of  the  Water  Department  of  New  York  City  with  a  view  to  enabling 
it  to  restrict  the  waste  of  water,  have  suggested  the  desirability  of  reprinting  these  articles  in  a  more 
convenient  and  accessible  form,  with  data  giving  the  results  of  efforts  in  this  direction  in  American 
cities  since  the  articles  first  appeared,  so  far  as  they  have  come  to  the  author's  notice 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  : 


CHAPTER  I.— CONDITION  OF  NEW  YORK'S 
WATER-SUPPLY. — Mr.  Thomas  Hawksley  on 
Advantages  of  Waste-Prevention  ;  Condition 
of  Water-Supply  in  England  Thirty  Years 
Ago ;  Means  Adopted  to  Prevent  Waste  in 
Great  Britain;  Norwich  the  First  City  in  Eng- 
land to  Adopt  Measures  of  Prevention  ;  Lon- 
don :  the  Practice  There. 

CHAPTER  II.— GLASGOW.— District  Meters 
Tried  as  an  Experiment  -Results  of  Experi- 
ments ;  Prevalence  of  Defective  Fittings ; 
Testing  and  Stamping  of  Fittings ;  Rules 
Governing  Plumbers'  Work. 

CHAPTER  III.— MANCHESTER.— History  of 
Waste-Prevention  Measures;  Methods  of 
House-to-House  Inspection  ;  Duties  'of  In- 
spectors ;  Methods  of  Testing  and  Stamping 
Fittings. 

CHAPTER  IV.— LIVERPOOL.  —  Change  from 
Intermittent  to  Constant  Supply  ;  Method  of 
Ascertaining  Locality  of  Waste  by  Use  of 
District  Meters  ;  Method  of  House  Inspec- 
tion ;  Method  of  Testing  Fittings. 

CHAPTER  V.— PROVIDENCE  AND  CINCINNATI. 
— Review  of  Measures  to  Prevent  Water- 
Waste  in  the  United  States  prior  to  1882  ; 
Providence,  R.  I.:  Results  following  the  Gen- 
eral Use  of  Meters  ;  Cincinnati:  Methods  of 
House  Inspection  with  the  Aid  of  the  Water- 
phone  ;  Results  Attained. 


CHAPTER  VI.— NEW  YORK.— Measures  Adopt- 
ed by  the  Department  of  Public  Works  prior 
to  1882. 

CHAPTER  VII.— GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS.— 
Points  to  be  considered  in  Adopting  Measures 
for  Large  Cities. 

APPENDIX.— POINTS  SUGGESTED  IN  THE  CON- 
SIDERATION OF  VARIOUS  METHODS. — Water- 
Waste  Prevention  in  Boston  in  1883  and  1884 ; 
Results  Attained  ;  Waste-Prevention  m  New 
York  City;  Liverpool  Corporation  Water- 
Works  Regulations ;  Glasgow  Corporation 
Water- Works  Regulations;  Description  of 
Standard  Fittings;  Penalties  for  Violations  ; 
Cistern  vs,  Valve-Supply  to  Water-Closets 
in  New  York  City;  New  York  Board  of 
Health  Regulations  concerning  Water-Sup- 
ply to  Water-Closets ;  Letters  from  Water- 
Works  Authorities  sustaining  the  action  of 
the  New  York  Board  of  Health  in  Requiring 
Cistern-Supply  to  Water-Closets;  Extracts 
from  Report  of  Boston  City  Engineer  on 
Wasteful  Water-Closets;  Proposed  Water- 
Rates  on  Water-Closets  in  New  York  ;  Reso- 
lutions of  the  New  York  Board  of  Health 
endorsing  the  proposed  Water-Pates  for 
Water-Closets;  Excerpts  from  Articles  ex- 
plaining Methods  of  Arranging  Water-Supply 
to  Water-Closets  to  secure  the  Minimum 
Water-Rate  in  New  York  (with  illustrations). 


Large  $>vo.     Bound  in  Cloth,  $1.00. 


%*  Sent  post  paid  on  receipt  of  price.     Address, 

BOOK  DEPARTMENT, 
THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD, 

No.  277    Pearl  Street,  New  York. 


0*1*  4.000.000.  SQ.y0s 
OR260  LINEAL  MILES  IN  USC. 

The  Barber  Asphalt  Paving  Co. 

IS    THE 

Oldest  and    Largest  Paving  Company  in  the 
UNITED    STATES. 

It  has,  up  to  January  i,  1890,  laid  Asphalt  Pavements  in  Twenty- 
seven  Cities  of  the  United  States,  on  607  streets,  of  a 
length  of  260  miles,  covering  an  area  of 
3,916,574   square   yards. 

No  Asphalt  Pavement  laid  by  this  company  in  the  .United  States  has 
ever  been  replaced  by  another  form  of  pavement. 

This  company  has  taken  up  other  pavements,  and  replaced  them  with 
Trinidad  Asphalt  Pavements  to  the  following  extent : 

WOOD,  459>033  scl'  >r<ds' 

STONE,  -         -         -  451,442   "       " 

FRENXH  ROCK  ASPHALT,  27,134   " 

COAL  TAK  AND  VULCANITE,        64,210   " 
MACADAM,  415,686   "      " 

TOTAL,  -         -         1,417,514  "      " 

A.  L.  BARBER,  President.  D.  O.  WICKHAM,  Treasurer. 

F.  V.  GREENE,  j 

-  Vice-Presidents.  J.  C.  ROCK,  Secretary. 

E.  B.  WARREN,  ) 

GENERAL    OFFICES  : 

Le  Droit  Building,  cor.  8th  and  F  Sts.,  Washington,  D.  C, 
Washington  Building,  i  Broadway,  New  York  City. 


WATER-WASTE  PREVENTION. 


By  HENRY  C.  MEYER,  Editor  of         THE  ENGINEERING  &  BUILUING  RECORD. 


PRESS  COMMENTS. 


"  Mr.  Meyer  is  competent  authority  to  speak  on 
a  subject  of  very  great  importance  in  all  cities 
and  one  regarded  with  too  much  apathy  by  the 
public.  Furthermore  he  has  given  the  matter 
special  study,  and  the  facts  detailed  are  the  re- 
sults of  investigation.  *  *  *  His  suggestions 
are  eminently  practicable  and  sensible,  and  should 
commend  themselves  to  the  judgment  of  every 
one  interested  in  the  subject.  —  Troy  Times. 

"The  economies  of  this  subject  deserve  the 
steady  attention  of  tax-payers  and  municipal 
officers.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  waste 
of  water  is  more  than  prodigal.  It  is  dangerous 
to  the  safety  of  a  city.'' — Cincinnati  Commercial 
Gazette. 

"  The  autnor  of  this  timely  book  is  particularly 
adapted  to  deal  with  the  questions  he  discusses. 
But  few  have  given  the  subject  so  much  atten- 
tion, and  no  one  could  treat  it  mote  impartially. 
He  is  not  only  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
water-supply  of  American  cities,  but  has  per- 
sonally investigated  the  plans  adopted  for  cur- 
tailing water-waste  in  various  cities  in  Great 
Britain,  the  results  of  these  investigations  ap- 
pearing in  this  work. 

"  As  our  cities  increase  in  population,  and  new 
cities  spring  up,  the  demand  for  more  water  cor- 
respondingly increases.  At  the  same  time  the 
water-supply  is  diminishing,  and  that  which 
would  otherwise  be  available  is  rendered  unfit 
for  use  by  the  contamination  of  -sewage  and  the 
refuse  of  manufactories.  It  is  conceded  that  the 
inhabitants  of  a  city  should  be  supplied  with  all 
the  water  they  can  use.  It  is  not  with  the  use, 
but  with  the  -waste  of  water  that  the  author  deals. 

"  No  patented  appliances  are  recommended, 
but  such  simple  means  as  are  free  to  all.  We 
recommend  the  careful  reading  of  this  little 
book  to  every  resident  of  a  city  who  is  interested 
in  its  water-supply,  and  particularly  to  those 
who,  by  virtue  of  vested  authority,  have  to  some 
extent  the  matter  of  water-waste  prevention  in 
their  hands. ' '  — A  merican  Mack  in  ist. 

"  A  valuable  work,  which  really  affects  every 
urban  resident.  *  *  *  There  is  not  a  city  in 
he  world  in  which  the  rate-payers  are  not  taxed 
-.nnecessanly  to  pay  for  pumping  water  which 
.uns  to  waste,  and  any  work  throwing  light  upon 
this  problem,  without  subjecting  the  community 
as  a  whole  to  inconvenience,  must  be  a  valuable 
treatise."— Ottawa  Daily  Press. 

"  A  little  work  whose  worth  cannot  be  justly 
estimated.  *  *  *  It  presents  an  interesting 
subject  for  examination  and  reflection  to  every 
citizen." — Houston  Post. 

"  A  work  that  should  be  read  and  studied  by 
every  one." — Savannah  News. 


"  Though  small  in  size  it  is  a  work  which  repre- 
sents a  good  deal  of  solid  work.  With  the  amount 
of  information  which  it  contains  it  ought  to 
prove  of  no  small  use  to  the  city  governments  of 
the  country.  It  is  a  vade  mecum  for  water  com- 
missioners, and  will  be  a  valuable  little  text-book 
for  every  water  board  in  America.  Briefly,  Mr. 
Meyer's  object  is  to  show  by  a  comparison  be- 
tween the  systems  and  results  in  different  cities  in 
America  and  England  how  much  money  is  an- 
nually wasted  in  the  shape  of  water  in  our  larger 
cities  for  the  want  of  proper  precautions  and  how 
those  precautions  had  best  be  taken.  *  *  *  Mr. 
Meyer's  book  is  well  got  up,  his  arguments  con- 
cisely stated,  and  his  facts  and  figures  well  tabu- 
lated and  arranged,  the  result  being  the  produc- 
tion of  a  work  which  carries  conviction  with  it, 
and  which  ought  to  be  of  no  small  value  to  the 
larger  cities  of  the  countiy  in  the  future. — Min- 
neapolis Tribune. 

"  1  his  volume  isamost  seasonable  contribution 
to  hydraulic  and  economic  literature.  Its  author 
has  personally  and  carefully  investigated  the 
problem  from  a  practical  standpoint  in  both  Eng- 
land and  America,  and  speaks  with  authority  and 
backs  his  statements  by  official  figures. 

"  The  work  treats  generally  of  the  condition  of 
the  water-supply  of  New  York,  and  the  methods 
tested  or  adopted  for  the  prevention  of  waste  in 
Glasgow,  Manchester,  and  Liverpool,  and  in  our 
own  cities  of  Providence,  Cincinnati,  Boston,  and 
New  York.  The  data  are  derived  from  the  most 
authoritative  sources,  and  presented  in  a  shape 
that  must  carry  conviction  with  it." — Engineer- 
ing News. 

'*  Once  get  a  property-owner  convinced  of  the 
evils  of  water-waste,  and  this  book  will  tell  him 
all  he  wants  to  know  about  preventing  it." — 
Philadelphia  Bulletin. 

"  One  of  the  best  and  most  useful  publications 
now  before  the  public.  *  *  *  A  copy  of  this 
timely  publication  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  all 
water  company  and  city  officials  and  plumbers, 
and  even  water  consumers  might  read  it  with 
profit."—  Memphis  Appeal. 

"It  is  worthy  of  close  attention.  Mr.  Meyer 
discloses  the  true  «pirit  of  the  disinterested  imre*- 
tigator."- -Hartford  Evening  Post. 

"  As  a  brief,  concise  treatise  upon  this  subject 
the  work  is  of  the  utmost  value,  the  author  mak- 
ing no  unproven  assertions,  but  bringing  the  sys- 
tems and  experiences  of  other  cities  to  illustrate 
and  enforce  his  statements.  In  giving  this  book 
to  the  public  the  author  is  deserving  of  praise  as 
a  true  and  practical  economist,  whose  efforts  will 
be  appreciated  by  thinking  men,  if  not  by  the 
public  at  large. "-Inland  A  rchitect  and  Build f' 


Sv0.,  bound  in  cloth,  $1.00.      Sent  post-paid  on  receipt  of  price. 

Address,  BOOK  DEPARTMENT, 

THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD, 

P.  O.  Box,  3037.  No.  277  Pearl  Street,  New  York. 

Obtainable  at  London  Office,  92  and  93  Fleet  Street,  for  5^. 


National  Street  Sweeping  Machinery  Co. 

330  WALNUT  ST.,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

LEWIS  MERRILL,  Pres.      GEO.  W.  TAFT,  Vice-Pres.      ROBT.  B.  LEWIS,  Sec'y  &  Treas. 

FACTORY : 
American  Road  Machine  Co.,  Kennett  Square,  Chester  Co.,  Pa. 

The  machines  of  this  Company  offer  the  most  economical  and  thoroughly 
efficient  means  of  street  cleaning  now  in  use. 

Hand  labor  practically  eliminated  and  all  the  work,  including  load' 
zng,  done  by  horse  power. 

GUTTER  SWEEPERS,  SURFACE  SWEEPERS, 
COMBINED  SWEEPERS  AND  LOADERS,  DUMP  WAGONS, 

and  all  needful  machinery  for  economical  and  efficient  street  cleaning, 
supplied  by  this  company. 

Steel  fibre  brooms,  having  equal  or  greater  efficiency  and  indefinitely 
greater  wear  than  any  vegetable  fibre,  and  adapted  to  any  machines, 
supplied  to  order. 

The  saving  in  cost  of  renewals  effected  by  substituting  steel  wire  for 
vegetable  fibre  is,  annually,  a  large  percentage  of  the  original  cost  of  the 
machine. 

Dtimp  Wagons  as  easily  handled  and  dumped  as  an  ordinary  cart,  and 
holding  from  two  to  three  and  one-half  cubic  yards,  and  saving  waste  of 
horse  power  in  handling  uneconomical  loads  of  Alight  material,  supplied  to 
order. 

All  machines  and  wagons  guaranteed  to  be  of  first  class  material 
and  workmanship,  and  shipped  at  lowest  attainable  freight  rates  F.  O.  B. 
at  Philadelphia. 

Illustrated  catalogues,  Price  lists,  and  full  information  in  regard  to 
working  of  machines,  will  be  furnished  on  application. 

VAL  DE  TRAVERS 

(SWISS) 


AND 


SEYSSEL 


(FRENCH) 


Rock  Asphalt  Pavements, 


ALSO 

CONCRETE 


Sidewalks,  Street  (Crossings,  Driveways,  &c. 


SIMPSON  BROTHERS, 

159  LA  SALLE  STREET,  22  MILK  STREET, 

CHICAGO.  BOSTON. 


PORTER'S 

West  Virginia  Vitrified  Paving  Blocks, 
FOR  STREETS  AND   ROADWAYS. 

Manufactured    by 

THE   JOHN   PORTER    COMPANY. 

MAIN  OFFICE  AND  WORKS, 

NEW  CUMBERLAND,  W.  VA. 

Pittsburg  Office,  708  Penn  Avenue. 
Philadelphia  Office,  1345  Arch  St. 


WHEELING,  WEST  VA.,  May  26th,  1885. 
JOHN  PORTER,  New  Cumberland,  W.  Va. 

DEAR  SIR  : — I  do  most  cheerfully  testify  to  you  and  those  whom  it  may  concern, 
that  your  Vitrified  Paving  Block,  now  in  use  in  this  city,  is  the  best  paving  for  general 
use  that  we  have,  both  on  account  of  it  being  smooth  and  of  its  noiselessness;  and  I  will 
say  further,  that  for  the  two  years  we  have  used  it  on  the  Street  Railway  it  has  not  cost 
the  Company  one  cent  for  repairs,  nor,  judging  by  present  appearances,  will  it  do  so  for 
some  years  to  come,  not  one  block  being  removed.  And  it  has  not  worn  in  the  least 
where  the  horses  travel,  nor  do  the  horses  slip  on  it,  or  snow  remain  on  it  any  length  of 
time.  I  consider  it  the  cheapest  material  a  railroad  company  can  use. 

C.   A.  WINGERTER, 

President  Citizens'  R.  R.  Co. 


AN  INDEX  TO  MATTER  PERTAINING  TO 

Sewerage  and   Selvage  Disposal 

IN  VOLUMES  V— XVII. 
(December  1881— June  1888.) 

OF 

THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD, 

(PRIOR  TO  1887,  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER.) 

Compiled  by  DANA  C.  BARBER,  C.  E. 

Large  8vo.,  Cloth,  $2.00. 

Address,  Book  Department,  THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD, 
Sent  post-paid  on  receipt  of  price.  277  PEARL  STREET,  N.  Y. 

PUBLIC     WATER    SUPPLIES; 

THEIR 

Collection;  Storage;  Distribution;  Engineering;  Plant;  Purity  and  Analysis. 

A  DIGEST  AND  INDEX  TO  VOLUMES  V-XVIII.,  OF 
The     Engineering     and     Building     Record, 

(PRIOR  TO  1887,  THE  SANITARY  ENGINEER.) 

Compiled  by  D.  WALTER  BROWN,  Ph.  D. 
&vo.  242  Pages.  Price,  $2.00. 

Address,  BOOK  DEPARTMENT, 

THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD, 

277  PEARL  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


J.  B.  REYNOLDS,  Pres.  J.  H.  FERINE,  Gen'l  M'g'r. 

UNION  PAVEMENT  CO. 


SOLE  PROPRIETORS  OF 


American 
Bituminous  Rock, 


FOR 


STREETS.    ROADWAYS, 

DEPOTS,    WAREHOUSES,    ROOFS, 

CELLARS  AND   FLOORS 

OF    ALL    KINDS. 

'"THIS  Company  owns  the  only  known  deposits  of  Natural  Rock 
Asphalt  in  America,  excepting  that  of  California.  Pavements 
made  from  it  are  superior  to  artificial  asphalt  pavements  of  any  kind. 
Preparation  perfectly  simple.  Consists  of  but  two  operations,  namely 
crushing  and  heating.  Plant  for  handling  it  costs  less  than  one 
third  as  much  as  that  of  the  artificial  pavement,  and  the  working 
force  of  the  yard  need  not  be  over  one-fourth  as  much. 


Territorial  Licenses  Issued. 

Correspondence  Solicited. 


ADDRESS, 


UNION  PAVEMENT  CO. 

45    BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK, 


F.    COLLINGWOOD, 

M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  M.  A.  S.  C.  E., 


Consulting  Engineer, 

)UNDATIONS,  RIVER  IMPROVEMENT 
[YDRAULIC  AND  SUBMARINE  WOR1 

277.  PEARL  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


ROADS,  FOUNDATIONS,  RIVER  IMPROVEMENTS,  DOCKS, 
HYDRAULIC  AND  SUBMARINE  WORK. 


J.  JAMES  R.  CROES, 

M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  M.  hist.  C.  E. 

13  William  Street,  New  York  City, 

Examinations  and  Reports  made  on  Projects 
for  Water- Supply  and  Sewerage   of   Towns. 

PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS  PREPARED  AND  WORK  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

SUPERINTENDED. 


RUDOLPH   HERING, 

M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. 
M.  Inst.  C.  E. 

277  PEARL  STREET,  N.  Y. 

Civil  and  Sanitary  Engineer. 

Designs  for  all  work  pertaining  to  Sewerage  and 
Water-Supply  of  Towns. 


SPECIAL    ATTENTION    GIVEN    TO    ROADS    AND    PAVEMENTS. 


E.  G.  LOVE,  PH.  D., 


Analytical  and  Consulting  Chemist. 

lalysis  of  Water,  Gas,  Fuels,  Paving  Materials  a 
all  Technical  Products. 

No.  122  BOWERY,  NEW  YORK. 


GEORGE  &£.  <BELL, 

Civil  and  Sanitary  Engineer,  [SPECIALTIES.]        . 

430  WALNUT  ST.,  PHILADELPHIA. 
THE  DEVELOFTvlENT  OF^  TOWN  SITES. 

Embracing  Survey  and  Subdivision  ot  land  into 
RESIDENCES,  PARKS,  VILLA  AND  VILLAGE  LOTS, 

DESIGNS  OF  ORNAMENTAL  GROUNDS 
for  Suburban  and  Country  Residences,  Public  Parks,  Sanitariums,  Summer  Resorts, 

PLANS  FOR  GRADING,   PLANTING,  ROAD-MAKING 
AND   TREATMENT  OF  WATER. 

PLANS  OF  SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE. 

Specifications  prepared,  Estimates  made,  and  Contracts  drawn,  Designs  and  Plans 
located  upon  the  ground,  and  work  superintended  to  completion. 
SANITARY  SURVEYS  OF  DISTRICTS- 


JAMES  OWEN, 

M.  Am.  Soc  C.  E. 

Special  Attention  to  the  Improvement  and  De- 
velopment of  Towns  and  Suburban  Property.  Plans 
and  Specifications  prepared  for  Roads,  Bridges,  Drain- 
age and  Water-works. 

721  BROAD  ST.,  NEWARK,  N.  J.    MONTCLAIR,  N.  J. 


SUGGESTIONS   FOR    ELECTRIC   LIGHT  STATIONS. 

PRIZE    DESIGNS    FOR   WATER   TOWER    AND    PUMPING    STATION. 

THE  seventeen  selected  designs,  including  those  awarded  the 
money  prizes,  received  in  THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING 
RECORD'S  $250  Competition  for  Pumping  Station  and  Water 
Tower  Designs,  are  published  in  the  twelve  weekly  issues  of  that 
Journal,  beginning  with  March  isth,  1890.     The  Pumping  Station 
Designs  are  also  suggestive  for   Electric   Light   Stations,  Boiler 
Houses,  etc.     This  series  also  contains  the  Prize  Essays  on  Road 
Making  and  Maintenance  received  in  the  Competition  instituted 
by  the  paper. 

The  set,  Paper  Cover,  sent  Post-paid,  $2,00. 

/CONTRACTORS  for  Municipal  and  Government  Work 
and  Manufacturers  of  Engineering  and  Building 
Supplies  will  find  every  week  in  the  Proposal 
advertisements  and  Contracting  News  columns  of 
THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD 
important  items  indicating  the  wants  of  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment, Municipal  Authorities,  Water  Companies,  and 
Building  Committees  of  Public  Buildings.  Information 
will  be  found  there  each  week  not  elsewhere  published. 


BUILDERS'  AND   CONTRACTORS'  ENGINEERING 

AND    PLANT. 
Now  APPEARING  IN  THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD. 


I. — Introduction.     Issue  of  November  27,1886. 

II.,  HI.,  IV.— Erection  of  the  Towers  of  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral  in  New  York  City.  Seven  Illustrations. 
Issues  of  December  4,  n,  and  18,  1886. 

V  — Improvements  in  Dredging  Machinery.  Thirteen 
Illustrations.  Issue  of  December  25,  1886. 

VI. — Dumping-Scows.  Thirteen  Illustrations.  Issue 
of  January  i,  1887. 

VII.,  VIII.,  IX.,  XM  XI.— The  Equitable  Building 
in  New  York  City.  Thirteen  Illustrations.  Issues 
ot  January  8,  22,  29,  February  5  and  12,  1887. 

XII. — Carson's  Trench  Machine.  Four  Illustrations. 
Issue  of  February  19,  1887. 

XIII. — Raising  the  Old  Court-House  in  Boston.  Three 
Illustrations.  Issue  of  March  5,  1887. 

XIV.— Cram's  Steam  Pile-Hammer.  Five  Illustra- 
tions. Issue  of  March  12, 1887. 

XV.— The  Equitable  Building,  New  York  City.  Three 
Illustrations.  Special  Hoisting  Engine  and  Der- 
rick. Issue  of  March  26,  1887. 

XVI.— The  Equitable  Building,  New  York  City.  One 
Illustration.  Shoring  of  Column.  Issue  of  April 
9,  1887. 

XVII.— Bridge-Erecting  and  Hoisting-Engine  used  on 
the  Suburban  Elevated  Railway,  New  York  City. 
Three  Illustrations.  Issue  of  April  30,  1887. 

XVIII. — Traveler  for  Erecting  Columns  and  Trans- 
verse Girders,  Kings  County  Elevated  Railway, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Four  Illustrations.  Issue  of 
Tune  4,  1887. 

XIX. — Excavating  Apparatus  used  on  the  Tancar- 
ville  Canal  and  Sewer,  Havre,  France.  Three  Il- 
lustrations. Issue  of  July  2,  1887. 

XX. — Tipple  Cars  on  the  New  Croton  Aqueduct.  Six 
Illustrations.  Issue  of  August  13,  1887. 

XXI.— Derrick,  Foot  Block  and  Sheaves  at  Shaft  14 
on  the  New  Croton  Aqueduct.  Two  Illustrations. 
Issue  of  September,  17,  1887. 

XXII.— The  Potomac  Flats  Dredging  Plant.  Nine 
Illustrations.  Issue  of  October  8,  1887. 

XXIII.— The  Tube-Riveting  Machines  at  the  Forth 
Bridge.  Two  Illustrations.  Issue  of  October  22, 
1887. 

XXIV— The  Lockwood  Dredge.  Cape  Cod  Ship  Canal. 
Eight  Illustrations.  Issue  of  November  5,  1887. 

XXV.— Location  of  Plant  at  Shafts  on  the  New  Cro- 
ton Aqueduct.  Two  Illustrations.  Issue  of  No- 
vember 12,  1887. 

XXVI. — Material  Lock  used  iuthe  Pneumatic  Caissons 
at  the  Forth  Bridge.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  De- 
cember 3, 1887. 


XXVII.— Six-Ton  Universal  Traveling  Crane  for  Ele- 
vated Railroad  Erection.  Illustrated.  Issue  of 
December  17,  1887. 

XXVIII. — Head-House  on  the  New  Croton  Aqueduct 
at  Shaft  22.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  December  24,  1887. 

XXIX.— The  New  Harlem  River  Bridge.  Klustrated. 
Issue  of  January  21, 1888. 

XXX— Erection  of  Poughkeepsie  Bridge,  No.  I.  Il- 
lustrated. Issue  of  March  3,  1888. 

XXXI.— Oil  Rivet  Furnace  at  the  Forth  Bridge 
Works.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  April  21,  1888. 

XXXII.— Erection  of  Poughkeepsie  Bridge.  No.  2. 
Masonry.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  May  5,  1888. 

XXXIII.— Erection  of  Poughkeepsie  Bridge.  No.  3 
False  Work.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  May  12,  1888. 

XXXIV.— Erection  of  Poughkeepsie  Bridge.  No.  4. 
Travelers.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  May  19,  1888 

XXXV.— Erection  of  Poughkeepsie  Bridge.  No.  5. 
Riveting  Traveler,  Derrick,  and  General  Plant. 
Illustrated.  Issue  of  May  26,  1888. 

XXXVI.— Erecting  Traveler  on  Kettle  Cieek  Trestle. 
Illustrated.  Issue  of  June  2,  188?. 

XXXVII.— Krection  of  Central  Viaduct,  Draw  Span, 
Cleveland,  O.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  June  o,  1888. 

XXXVIII.— The  70-foot  Caissons  at  the  Forth  Bridge. 
Illustrated.  Issue  of  June  9,  1888. 

XXXIX.— Raising  an  Engine  at  Poughkeepsie  Bridge 
erection.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  June  16,  1888. 

XL.— The  Hydraulic  Spade  at  the  Forth  Bridge 
Works.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  June  30,  1888 

XLI.-XLVL— Harlem  River  Bridge  Erection.  No.  2. 
Masoniy.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  July  7,  1888. — 
No.  3.  Cement  and  Concrete.  Illustrated.  Issue 
of  July  14,  1888.— No.  4.  Hoisting  Apparatus;  Re- 
volving Derrick.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  July  21, 
1888.— No.  5.  Hoisting  Apparatus;  Floor  Travel- 
ers. Illustrated.  Issue  of  July  28.  1888. — No.  6. 
Derrick  Details  and  Shipping.  Illustrated.  Issue 
of  August  TI,  1888. — No.  7.  Support  of  Segments, 
Field  Riveting,  etc.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  Septem- 
ber i,  1888. 

XLV1I. — Head-House  on  New  Croton  Aqueduct  at 
Shafts  Nos.  i.  2.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  Septem- 
ber 8,  1888. 

XLVIII.— Lever  Truck  for  Handling  Bridge  Mate- 
rial. Illustrated.  Issue  of  September  15,  1888. 

XLIX.— Bismarck  Bridge.  Erecting  Traveler.  Illus- 
trated. Issue  of  November  3,  1888. 

L.— Details  of  Head  House,  New  Croton  Aqueduct. 
Illustrated.  Issue  of  November  17,  1888. 


LI.— Suspended  Tipple  for  Dumping  Cars  on  the  New 
Croton  Aqueduct,  N.  Y.  Illustrated.  Issue  of 
December  15,  1888. 

LII.— A  Viaduct  Erecting  Traveler.  Illustrated.  Issue 
of  December  22,  1888. 

L1II.— Ropes  and  Tackle.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  De- 
cember 29, 1888. 

LIV.— Power  used  for  Operating  Plant  on  the  New 
Croton  Aqueduct.  Issue  of  January  19,  1889. 

LV.—  Special  Methods  of  Handlirg  Material  on  the 
New  Croton  Aqueduct.  Issue  of  February  ib,  18-^9. 

LVI. Railway  Bridge  Erection  in  Peru.  Part  I.  The 
Erection  of  a  zoo-foot  Span.  Illustrated.  Issue 
of  February  23,  1889. 

LV1I.— Railroad  Bridge  Erection  in  Peru,  lllustiated. 
Issue  of  March  2,  1889. 

LVIII.— Erection  of  Omaha  Bridge.  Parti.  Genera' 
Description  and  Erecting  Travelers.  Issue  of 
March  9,  1889. 

LIX.— Erection  of  Omaha  Bridge.  No.  II  False 
Work  in  Channel  Span.  Illustrated.  Issue  of 
March  16,  1889. 

LX.— Building  the  Centre  Pier  of  Railway  Draw- 
bridge. Illustrated.  Issue  of  March  23,  1889. 

LX1.— The  Sugar  River  Badge  Erection.  False  Work. 
Illustrated.  Issue  of  March  30,  i88g. 

LX1I.— Erection  of  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Depot, 
Montreal,  P.  Q.  Illustrated.  Issueof  April  20, 1889. 

LX1 II.— Erection  of  a  Plate  Order  Bridge.  Illus- 
trated Issue  of  May  iS,  1889. 

LX1V.-LXV.— The  Boylston  Street  Bridge,  Boston, 
Mass.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  June  8  acd  22.  il8g 

LX VI, —Erection  of  Harvard  Bridge,  Boston,  Mass. 
Illustrated.  Issue  of  June  29,  ib£g. 

LXV II.— False  Work  of  St.  Peter's  Bridge  over  the 
Dadore.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  August  10,  1889. 

LXVIII.— Methods  of  Timbering  Shafts  on  the  New 
Croton  Aqueduct.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  August 
17,  1889. 

LXIX.— The  Erection  of  Machinery  Hall  at  Paris  Ex- 
position. Illustrated.  Issue  of  August  24,  1889 

LXX. — Hoisting  Cages  on  the  New  Croton  Aqueduct 
Illustrated.  Issue  of  August  31,  1889. 

LXXI.-LXXIII.— Frection  of  Machinery  Hall,  Paris. 
Issue  of  September  7,  21  and28,  1889. 

LXX IV.— Standard  Cars  used  on  New  Croton  Aque- 
duct. Illustrated.  Issue  of  October  12,  1889. 


LXXV.— Erection  Adjustment  of  the  Kanawha  River 
Bridge.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  October  26,  1889. 

LXXVI.— An  Adjustable  Pile  Driver  and  Derrick. 
Illustrated.  Issue  cf  November  9,  1889. 

LXX  VI  I. —Construction  ct  Inverts  and  Side  Wai  Is  on 
New  Croton  Aqueduct.  Illustrated.  Issue  of 
November  16,  1889. 

LXXVII1.— Ertction  of  Buffalo  Truss  Viaduct.  Il- 
lustrated. Issue  of  December  14,  1889. 

LXXIX. — Construction  of  Arches  on  ihi  New  Croton 
Aqueduct.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  December  14, 1889. 

LXXX.— Erection  of  St.  Paul  High  Bridge.  Part  I. 
General  Diagram  and  Viaduct  Erecting  Traveler. 
Illustrated.  Issue  of  December  21,  1889. 

LXXXI. — New  Croton  Aqueduct  Conpressed  Air 
Plant.  Illustrated.  Issueof  December  28,  1889. 

LXXXII.— Erection  of  St.  Paul  High  Bndije.  Part 
II.  False  Work  and  Trave'.ei  for  River  Spaos. 
Illustrated.  Issue  of  December  28,  1889. 

LXXX11I. — I  ighiing  the  Crotoa  Aqueduct.  Issue  of 
Jacuary  n,  189?. 

LXXX IV.— Erection  National  Gallery,  Berlin.  Illus- 
trated. ls«ue  of  January  n,  1890. 

LXXXV.— The  Van  Buren  Bridge  Piets.  Part  I. 
General  Description  of  Lccanon,  Structure,  Meth- 
ods, Progress  and  Materials.  Illustrated.  Issue 
of  January  n,  1890. 

"LXXX  VI.— Ventilating  Croton  Aqueduct.  Illus- 
trated. Issue  of  January  25,  1890. 

LXXXVII.— Van  Buren  Bridge  Pitrs.  Part  II.  Illus- 
trated. Issue  of  February  8,  1890. 

LXXXVII  I.— Croton  Aqueduct  Pumps.  Experiments 
relating  to  Hydraulics  of  Fire  Streams.  Issue  cf 
February  22,  1890. 

LXXX1X.  — European  Bridge  Erect-on.  Illustrated. 
Issue  of  March  i,  1890. 

XC. — Erection  of  Court  Street  Bridge  at  Bmghamton, 
N.  Y.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  March  8,  1890. 

XCI. — Sidewalk  Protection  during  Building  Crnstruc- 
ti-n.  Illustrated.  Issue  of  March  15,  1890. 

XCII.—  House  Build-r's  Derrick.  Illustrated.  Issue 
of  April  5, 1890. 


Nos.  I.  to  XV 1 1.  only  obtained  in  Vo  .  XV.  of  THE 
ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD.  Price 
$3.00. 


ADDRESS,    BOOK   DEPARTMENT, 


THE  ENGINEERING  AND  BUILDING  RECORD, 

277  PEARL  STREET.  New  YORK. 


MAY  15,   1890. 


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For  Estimates  and  Pamphlets 

APPLY    TO 

Warren-Scharf  Asphalt 
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* 
81  FULTON  STREET,         NEW  YORK. 


J?/ 


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